Archived Papers

Over the past several years, the interest in long run-time applications has grown dramatically. Incidents from the New York blackout to Katrina have uncovered needs that may have previously gone unnoticed. Hydrogen fuel cell designs are emerging as a potential cure all in these long run-time applications. This paper will provide a background on fuel cells; describing some typical applications and the need for additional bridge power. It will then focus on design attributes of lead acid batteries and how Thin Plate Pure Lead batteries ideally match the application needs of fuel cells.

Advanced storage batteries employing sodium-metal chloride chemistry feature characteristics and performance as compared to conventional lead acid or nickel cadmium batteries, noticeably the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities. In addition, they are ideally suited for longevity in high temperature applications. However their long term reliability and their sensitivity to deviations from the optimal operating conditiions, which might happen in a variety of float service conditions, have not been completely explored.

There is an on-going debate within the battery industry today regarding the correct method for calculating the capacity of a battery in a high-rate discharge application, such as an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) battery plant. The contention is that the end-of-life requirement is for the battery to provide 80% of the published rate for 100% of the time as suggested through IEEE 485-1997 'Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications.' However, when the battery is tested in accordance with IEEE 450-1995, 'Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications', the end-of-life measurement is when the battery provides 100% of the published rate for 80% of the time. It is argued that the existing method in IEEE 450 will suggest that the battery is apparently aging more rapidly than it actually is aging. The capacity calculation method in IEEE 450 is not consistent with the end-of-life requirement set forth in the sizing criteria found in IEEE 485. This paper will show calculations based on the present method in IEEE 450 and a proposed alternative method, including the "resulting difference in the calculated capacity, for flooded lead acid and valve regulated batteries in high-rate discharge applications.

This paper compares the strengths and weaknesses of the lead calcium vs. lead selenium battery technologies and discusses the market drivers that warrant a new look at these technologies and their suitability for mission critical applications in the telecommunications, utility, and industrial sectors.

There are many methods being deployed today to ensure data center batteries provide maximum availability to uninterruptible power supplies, ranging from fully automated systems to entirely manually based systems. This paper explores three essential components of a comprehensive management approach, whereby technological solutions are utilized at the battery location, a software system and local operator retains complete access and control, and a remote expert provides "overwatch" and back office analysis to proactively provide maximum availability. This methodology thus far has demonstrated complete availability to an installed base of thousands of batteries.

Automated battery monitoring has long been accepted as a suitable method of monitoring auxiliary and backup batteries. However, we have studied the behavior of the users of those systems and have determined that not all users are realizing the full value of the systems they have installed. The paper examines why this is happening and what can be done about it.

This paper provides a comprehensive description of various aspects of Li-ion battery safety, including the influence of electrochemistry, cell construction, process control, system design and application integration. A battery design that comprehensively addresses all of these areas, rather than focusing on one or two, can deliver a high level of safety that will meet the needs of the vast majority of users.

Over the past 15 years, the stationary battery market has seen a significant trend of deployment of products into applications that are remote and in many cases, harsh. Parallel to this trend has also been a sharp increase in the usage of Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries and a desire on the part of the end user to reduce the overall maintenance costs of the system. In response to these factors, a market has emerged for the use of diagnostic tools that are intended to predict the integrity of the battery systems before network reliability is compromised. These diagnostic tools measure internal battery impedance, conductance or resistance (collectively referred to here as "ohmic") values and seek to make a judgement about the battery state of health. A major issue in the use of these tools however, has been the interpretation of data they generate and how to apply it to realistic expectations given the capability and limitations of the equipment. This paper will examine the topic in general terms by looking at data collected on new cells, cells artificially aged, and real world data, with the intent of providing a set of guidelines for making battery maintenance decisions. In addition, a more in-depth analysis will be provided to quantify trends with respect to types of failure mechanisms.

The New York Power Authority (NYPA) has many different maintenance locations. Prior to 1983, each area performed its own battery maintenance using slightly different procedures. Although NYPA was performing all of the maintenance to the best of its knowledge, there was some concern that all the procedures were not comprehensive. Load testing was not being performed.

Telecom operators are exploring cost-effective, backup power alternatives to improve network reliability and reduce operating expenses, and hydrogen fuel cells are rapidly emerging as a viable solution. This paper illustrates how fuel cells can compete with and complement batteries on an economic level, and demonstrates how fuel cell companies are tailoring the value proposition and securing certifications to increase confidence among service providers.

The concept of employing a rotating mass to store and deliver useful electrical power has been practiced for decades. However, until recently, no more than a small fraction of the potential energy from a flywheel couLd be extracted and "delivered in an acceptable frequency range for the electrical load being supported.

No available description.

No available description.

This paper described the battery requirements, installation, operation, maintenance, and battery life expectance issues for this new application as viewed by an electric utility.

Two papers at Battcon 2002 addressed the alphabet soup of Codes and Standards pertaining to batteries. This paper presents a bried update on activities pertaining to batteries that have occurred in the past years within various government and non-government agencies. It attempts to identify trends and their possible implications for the industry.

In 1964, Bob Dylan released a song with the lyric, "Your old road is rapidly agin’. Please get out of the new one if you can’t lend your hand, for the times they are a-changin’." The IEEE Power and Energy Society recognizes the truth of that statement for the power and energy industry. As a result, the IEEE Stationary Battery Committee has been reorganized to address the current needs of its Society members. This paper will explain the rationale behind that decision, discuss its scope and organizational structure, and outline what it sees as its future objectives.

Description is not available.

This proposed test would be used each refueling outage at nuclear plants in lieu of the normal service test. In addition, the proposed test would replace both types of performance tests for trending capacity and condition monitoring. The use of this test could facilitate qualification for the advanced nuclear plants.

No available description.

“Transmission reliability, distributed resources and energy storage… will contribute to the development of the dynamic power grid of the future, characterized by distributed intelligence, distributed generation, and distributed storage.” This is a quote from Imre Gyuk, Energy Storage Systems Program Manager at the US Department of Energy and a notable speaker at past Battcon conferences. It is interesting to think about what that dynamic grid might look like, and what the role of energy storage will be.

Standby power systems are widely used throughout the telecom, switchgear and control, and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications. Users are often confronted with the task of adding to and/or upgrading their existing DC standby power systems. A description of the issues that challenge the user while planning for the addition is presented.

A more direct title for this paper might be: Lead Acid Battery System Reliability - What can benefit the user most and why? Is it Maintenance? Monitoring? Both? Or Neither?

There are numerous issues to consider regarding ripple on DC battery systems. These issues differ depending on application. I will review ripple concerns for each of the major applications.

In most Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs), the DC link is the point at which the output of the rectifier, the input of the inverter, the DC filter, and the battery are all connected in parallel. The rectifier converts AC power from the utility or building generator to DC power. The DC power passes through the DC filter that usually consists of series inductance with shunt (parallel) capacitance. The filtered DC power is then used to charge the battery and supply the input of the inverter. The inverter converts the DC power back to AC power for the critical loads that are typically computers and their peripheral equipment.

This paper highlights the problem areas of life testing that result in erroneous life time predictions and failure modes.

Acceptance inspection and testing of a new stationary battery is performed to insure that the battery purchased can perform to the manufacturer's specification and meets all the procurement specification requirements. This is important because the battery manufacturer's specification is generally used to size and select the battery for the application. The acceptaIice inspection and test, typically performed at the battery manufacturer's factory has long been overlooked by the battery end user for various reasons including time, economics and lack of guidance. Accurate specification and performance of an acceptance inspection and test of a stationary battery by properly trained and qualified personnel can optimize battery life and performance thereby increasing the reliability of the standby power system. Currently, standards exist which describe recommended practices for maintenance, testing and replacement of batteries in stationary applications however, these standards do not necessarily provide guidance for acceptance inspection and testing of a new battery. This paper will address the specification and performance of this inspection and test, and the acceptance and cell selection criteria for new lead acid and nickel cadmium batteries used in stationary applications.

In this paper, a simplified coup de fouet approach was used to analyze the data collected on various VRLA and flooded batteries in Verizon central office locations.

In this paper, we compare the short circuit currents as predicted using generally accepted estimation methods versus actual measured values for individual batteries and battery systems.

For the last two years, we have been informing this august body about our testing and evaluation on the use of internal precious metal catalyst to enhance the performance and life of VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead-Acid) batteries. This year while we will bring everyone up to date with the latest results after two years as a production product. In addition I will report that, as a result of our testing, it is possible to improve many older VRLA product by retrofitting with an internal catalyst. We will also show that it is possible to reverse the negative plate sulfation that has caused performance degradation by boost charging.

Lead acid batteries are the most widely deployed technology for providing stored energy for emergency power to critical DC power systems for applications including telecommunications, uninterruptible power systems (UPS), electric utility switchgear, and other stationary power systems. As the user’s applications have evolved to include more remote, uncontrolled environments, the desire to evaluate and deploy alternative energy storage technologies that may enhance life, performance, safety, economics, and reliability has become an important consideration in the strategic system engineering plans for many corporations. This paper will present an overview of various technologies that are currently considered as potential alternatives to the traditional lead acid battery approach. Key attributes of each technology will be presented and compared to other storage technologies, including lead acid, to assist the system designer in evaluating the applicability of each potential solution to the DC system requirements.

This paper discusses the UPS battery market, new requirements of extremely high power and low cost solutions, and future battery technologies for UPS application. Different lead acid battery plate making technologies related to UPS applications are reviewed, including gravity casted and expanded metal grid plates, thin plate pure lead plates, and full border frame 3D punched plates. Optimized solutions are used to reach high rate discharging and fast charging practices. Performance benefit and cost analysis comparisons among these technologies are also discussed.

No available description.

This paper will briefly describe the technology behind the advanced nickel cadmium battery system; point out differences and improvements achieved compared with traditional nickel cadmium batteries; and elaborate on how the specific features of this newer technology can be applied to provide a more reliable and durable energy storage system for outdoor telecom cabinet plants. Finally, we will discuss the installation, operation, and maintenance of the advanced nickel cadmium battery.

Between scheduled capacity tests, we accept the proposition that a battery maintains its advertised and tested capacity. In actuality, we have little choice but to accept this premise. In some cases, but not all, we periodically check battery capacity with a complete discharge test to determine if it can deliver the power and energy required to support our critical loads. These tests are both time consuming and expensive but are considered essential to maintaining our confidence level that indeed, the batteries can deliver their rated capacity when called upon during a power outage. But then, although the system passed the last capacity test, when it is called upon during an unscheduled power outage, we are surprised (and disappointed) when the battery fails to meet backup power demands.

No available description.

Telephone service providers are constantly studying ways to curb the costs of operating remote telecommunications transmission sites. The more remote the site, the higher the costs of energy used to power the site regardless if the energy is utility power or other sources such as on-site diesel powered generators. Remote transmission sites are also expensive to service and support. Many sites are accessible only by helicopter or during summer months. There are tens of thousands of transmissions sites in North America alone, many of which rely on localized generation of electrical power from on-site diesel generators. Attempts have been made to augment the diesel generators with some form of energy storage such as large banks of lead/acid batteries. Battery banks have traditionally been used as a backup power system operating only when the main source of power is not available. There have been attempts to use traditional batteries for cycling down generators during extended periods of time. In theory, using batteries could save fuel costs or will help eliminate generator noise and pollution at sites located close to populated areas. Traditional battery technologies such as lead/acid batteries cannot hold up to this aggressive charge and discharge cycling. The cost to constantly replace damaged batteries becomes more expensive than the realized operational costs of using the batteries in this capacity.

Photovoltaic-genset hybrid systems can be an economical alternative to generator only for powering remote commercial sites. Described in this case study is the development and installation of a hybrid system at Waste Management's Gray Wolf Landfill in central Arizona.

This paper demonstrates that, for applications involving high rate, short duration loads, the use of an aging factor is critical to achieving full battery life expectancy. For loads of longer duration, the aging factor is also important if the full duty cycle time is to be supported throughout life. It will be shown, however, that application of the aging factor to the exclusion of other considerations can sometimes be detrimental to system reliability. This is particularly the case in telecom systems where battery space is limited.

The United States Air Force (USAF) has been fielding power-conditioning equipment for over 30 years. The main piece of equipment in the last 15 years has been the solid state un interruptible power supply (SSUPS). With the introduction of the Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) battery the need to determine the health of the cells was realized. This paper will cover the history of battery monitoring conducted by the Power Conditioning and Continuation Interfacing Equipment (PCCIE) office and Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), values used in analyzing cells and how they were derived, and experiences in monitoring.

This paper attempts to give a broad overview of relevant documents, a basic understanding of their subject matters, and an idea of which officials might enforce which requirements.

No available description.

No available description.

This paper examines the value and benefits of scheduled DC plant preventative maintenance and incorporation of the IOVR process on VRLA batteries. Examples of what we observed are presented.

Under the sponsorship of the Department of Energy, Office of Utility Technology, the Battery Analysis and Evaluation Department and the Photovoltaic System Assistance Center of Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) initiated a US industrywide PV Energy Storage System survey. Arizona State University (ASU) was contracted by SNL to conduct the survey and to compile the survey results. The extrapolated data from the study show the 1995 market for PV batteries to be quite large: worldwide sales of PV batteries were 2,961,000 kWh, worldwide wholesale value for PV batteries shipped in 1995 was $302 million, and worldwide total installed capacity of batteries in PV systems was 10,519,000 kWh.

Power needs in the telecommunication industry are presently undergoing rapid change. The coexistence of digital and analog systems, future build-out strategies and ever increasing data and Internet traffic throughout a network makes power planning a difficult task at best. As a reaction to this uncertainty, many in the industry are oversizing power panels today so they will meet their anticipated needs tomorrow. In such cases, after an outage and when the power plant comes back on-line, large amounts of current are available to the battery. Combined with this reality is a desire by users to rapidly bring their batteries to a high state of charge after an outage or a test. Both of these situations lead the user to value a battery which can accept high recharge currents without sustaining damage.

This paper verifies, by introducing experimental field data from an actual application, behaviors that previous technical papers have presented as theory, lab observations, and/or field data. As well, to obtain the field data from an actual application, the author installed a low cost probe based on a specific' digital measurement technique (DMT)'. Through in house tests, the low-cost probe was compared experimentally with other proven technologies applicable for measuring the small flow of float charging currents.

This paper describes Float Current measurement and its related theoretical benefits. It explores different measurement techniques and presents a new innovative digital measurement method. Battery laboratory results will also be presented to defme how Float Current measurement can detect various battery problems. A proactive detection of these battery problems will help users to eliminate service loss to the end user.

In some applications, there is a need to recharge conventional batteries (lead-acid or NiCd) quickly. Until now, achieving this task under varying depths of discharge and load conditions has not been possible without excessive risk of overcharging. More deeply discharged batteries, for example, require longer duration boost charging. This paper describes a battery charger control system that dynamically adjusts, for each recharge cycle, the transition point between float and boost modes to achieve minimum practical recharge time, while also achieving desirable low risk of overcharge. By employing more data inputs than traditional boost mode control systems, the resulting charge decision more closely approximates the optimal decision that might be made if the conventional battery were to provide direct feedback on its condition.

This paper describes several types of battery behavior that fall into this category and defines the "real" memory effect. A summary of the literature on the phenomenal is presented, along with a rundown on the battery types that exhibit it and the operational parameters that cause it.

Fault current calculations for the selection of circuit breakers or fuses for battery cables is normally conducted for the voltage of fully charged batteries and cables at operating temperatures (Ref. 1). However, batteries at a low state of charge not only have a lower terminal voltage, but also have an internal resistance up to three times the nominal value (Ref. 2). Heating of the cables during a fault also increases the circuit resistance. The consequence can be a low fault current, with a time delay, or a failure of the fuses or circuit breakers to trip, possibly resulting in an ignition and fire. The problem is more acute when the voltage drop per unit length is high resulting in a power density per unit length that is high. Such a condition may occur in a nearly discharged battery in an electrically powered vehicle.

This paper presents the rationale of using refractometry as a means of determining state-of-charge in open port, lead-acid battery cells. We will present the theory of operation of a unique refractometer developed specifically for this application and conclude with experimental data that demonstrates the validity of this technique.

There is an arc-in-a-box effect whenever an enclosure is involved for dc and ac systems. This paper looks at the arc-in-a-box effect for dc systems, particularly those where batteries are involved, using a multiplying factor and the dc maximum power method. It also looks at how battery cabinets are different than MV switchgear and require additional testing.

The presenter discusses actual sites that were visited and appeared to be fully protected, yet a small element was overlooked that could have led to an outage.

This presentation discusses alternative approaches to present day lead-acid battery installations in utility substations, from both equipment and operational standpoints.

This paper will discuss the challenges associated with charging lead-acid battery strings and how a management system that is capable of providing current to individual cells can prevent certain problems from developing, benchmark and track active cell status changes, significantly extend service life, and improve the overall power system reliability.

The paper analyzes in detail the fuel cell operating mode, the impact that the fuel cell has in the design of the power plant and the in service experience gathered so far. The paper also explores some of the possibilities that this new technology offers in other applications.

Adaptive charging is an improved method for charge maintenance of standby batteries. It involves measuring critical battery data, such as rectifier output voltage, open circuit voltage, discharge and charge voltages, and internal resistance. These data are used to initiate charge when needed and only for as long as needed to maintain the batteries at full charge. Since these factors are dependent on temperature and battery age, the frequency of charge is varied to compensate for them, resulting in longer life. Trend analysis and comparison of these data with a battery signature library can enable additional capabilities, such as detecting a failing battery and predicting its likely failure date. A way that this system can be implemented in a practical battery management system is described and life test and field test data from several sites are shown.

This paper explains the charging characteristics ofVRLA batteries as they relate to such problems. Of particular importance is the way in which these characteristics vary over time-both the rapid changes that occur early in life and the progressive changes associated with battery aging. By adopting the principles outlined in this paper, the user can ensure that VRLA battery life is not shortened by poor charging practices.

With the ever-increasing number of VRLA batteries in extreme applications, there has been a renewed focus on their susceptibility to thermal runaway (TR). Data presented in this paper will compare and contrast the TR characteristics of the lead calcium VRLA and the pure lead-tin VRLA under identical conditions of gross overcharge.

Internal battery ohmic measurement have been a hot topic amongst battery users and battery manufacturers for the last ten or twelve years. Everyone seems to agree that measuring the internal parameters of a cell can be very useful in determining a battery's state of health. These measurements, which have in recent years been accepted by the IEEE battery working group as well as most battery manufacturers, are still not well understood.

Traditional phone companies have seen their telephone market share significantly eroded in the past few years mainly due to competition from wireless, cable TV companies, etc. To keep existing customers and regain market share, these companies believe they have to offer the “bundle”; i.e., wireless, wireline, broadband data, and video. The existing long copper loops in the ground are not going to provide the necessary broadband pipe to do the “triple play”. So, similarly to what the cable TV companies have done, fiber must be extended deeper into the network. The amount of power carried by fiber is so miniscule that the optical-to-electrical conversion electronics must be powered by some other means. Although lifeline telephone service is required to have 3-8 hours of battery (or similar alternatives) backup by various regulations in the U.S., those same regulations do not exist for high speed data and video service. As new fiber-based architectures are deployed, these phone companies must decide which services to back up, how much backup to provide, and how to maintain that backup power.

Fire codes, building codes, electric codes, safety codes, environmental regulations. Who says what about batteries, and which codes are in need of repair?

Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries offer attractive solutions for demanding conditions. Newly developed cathode materials allow full charge acceptance up to 65⁰C (60% at 85⁰C) and cycle life to more than 2000 cycles at full depth of discharge. Several orders of magnitude higher cycle life are achievable at lower depths of discharge. Field trials are validating performance in harsh environments.

Achieving the maximum possible life from a battery system has been the goal of battery engineers and users since the invention of the secondary battery. The over riding concern has been that the battery costs had to be amortized over the longest possible time, while still providing adequate capacity to support the critical load.

Describes how battery aging observations have been made over the last couple of decades by various battery monitoring instruments and systems. The advancement of battery monitoring technology and organized collection and archiving of battery performance data has made this possible. By collecting and analyzing historical data, both on individual batteries and battery systems/strings utilizing commonly used battery measurement parameters, typical aging patterns can be observed. These patterns or fingerprints have a commonality. Using the historical record and current data, predictions of battery performance, and prognostication of battery lifetimes can be made using real data versus estimated data based on theory or laboratory results.

No available description.

No available description.

This paper proposes a battery arrangement, grounding and overload protection scheme for a 380  volt dc system designed with the intention of minimizing risk to operations and maintenance personnel while maximizing the system uptime and reliability.

Battery capacity testing is the best means of determining the reliability of a battery system and the only way to accurately determine its capacity. However, many battery systems are installed or manufactured with little consideration given to testing. Systems are installed in locations which are inaccessible or are configured in ways which defy testing. A few of the more unusual problems which have been encountered and overcome will be discussed in the following.

Contrary to common belief, the term "Stationary Battery" is not synonymous with Standby or Float applications. The term "Stationary" simply means that the battery is in a permanent location, as opposed to being used in a vehicle for motive power or engine starting.

I will let you decide whether you think it is better to include specific features inside the battery charger enclosure. Cost will always sit in the driver’s seat when it comes to the DC system. Extra features, such as sirens, input metering, and battery disconnect contactors were added to the battery charger enclosure to reduce cost, footprint, and to allow one-stop shopping. What have we done in the past, may come back to haunt us in the future. Take a look at the wacky features added to a battery charger.

Battery chargers serve the critical purpose of maintaining battery charge levels and supplying DC power. The charger output power characteristics can greatly affect the life of a battery. Given the common usage of batteries in industrial application, battery chargers and power supplies have become a necessity in nearly all installations. Different battery charger technologies have both advantages and disadvantages. The technologies described in this paper all serve the same basic purpose. It is the requirements of the end user, in terms of performance, cost, longevity and size, that determine what technology best fits the application.

In lead-acid battery systems, cycling systems are often managed using float management strategies. There are many differences in battery management strategies for a float environment and battery management strategies for a cycling environment. To complicate matters further, in many cycling environments, such as off-grid domestic power systems, there is usually not an available charging source capable of efficiently equalizing a lead-acid battery let alone bring it to a full state of charge. Typically, rules for battery management which have worked quite well in a floating environment have been routinely applied to cycling batteries without full appreciation of what the cycling battery really needs to reach a full state of charge and to maintain a high state of health. For example, charge target voltages for batteries that are regularly deep cycled in off-grid power sources are the same as voltages applied to stand-by systems following a discharge event. In other charging operations equalization charge requirements are frequently ignored or incorrectly applied in cycled systems which frequently leads to premature capacity loss. The cause of this serious problem: the application of float battery management strategies to cycling battery systems. This paper describes the outcomes to be expected when managing cycling batteries with float strategies and discusses the techniques and benefits for the use of cycling battery management strategies.

Throughout the world. b,attery selection for small photovoltaic (PV) systems is frequently driven by the availability of batteries in the host country. Offshore projects frequently have very limited sources for deep cycling lead-acid batteries and sometimes must employ starting-lighting-ignition (SLn batteries which are designed especially for power, as opposed to energy, use. SLI batteries are not intended for deep cycling operation, nonetheless, they are commonly found in small PV systems. To compound the problem, battery management is frequently inadequate and the battery subsequently yields very poor performance in these systems. Recent testing of SLI batteries has been implemented at Sandia National Laboratories to assist photovoltaic system integrators in developing a battery management scheme which will help improve SLI battery performance in shallow cycling applications. This paper discusses the test procedure and reports on the successful results obtained from life testing of a 100 Ah flooded SLI lead-acid battery in a simulated PV environment. Mitigation of failure mechanisms which contribute to the early failure of SLI batteries used in stationary environments is also discussed.

Take a ride through the wires of a DC bus protecting the turbines and high voltage lines of the USA. Take back with you a photo of each stop along the way and learn the importance of the crossings and the connections.

This paper will discuss the different types of dc overcurrent and short circuit protective devices along with how they should be applied in a dc power system.

This paper will provide a summary of performance and modified performance discharge test methods as recommended by NERC PRC 005-2 for vented lead acid batteries. Standard practices for performing the test, results analysis to determine the battery capacity, minimum accepted values, and battery replacement criteria will be discussed as per IEEE recommendations. Case studies will be presented to illustrate best field practices to overcome challenges associated with discharge testing.

Short circuit tests were performed at 60KA, 98VDC on battery disconnects rated 200 through 2400 amp. Data acquisition captured peak let-through currents, clearing times and incident energy. These data points are relevant to arc flash calculations. This paper presents those results and compares them to theoretical calculations.

No available description.

In UPS service applications, field inspection of VRLA batteries within cabinets dominates the market share in the 225-600KVA power range. This paper presents a baseline methodology with a novel visual representation that enables field engineers to quickly identify failing battery jars within the string, while improving efficiency and availability.

Most accidents that happen in stationary battery locations occur when batteries are being delivered, installed, replaced or removed. This paper examines the current battery handling techniques and problems, including transporting, moving and positioning batteries. Codes are examined to determine what is applicable. The lack of specific codes and standards is also highlighted and discussed. The paper offers possible and realistic solutions. Special attention is paid to personnel and equipment safety issues and code compliance.

This presentation is about battery charges. First, however, we can't avoid talking about some battery issues, as they relate to the interaction of the charger and battery. We'll try not to change the laws of battery physics

No available description.

Back in 1964, the batteries used in critical applications were looked after by skilled technicians, and valve-regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA) technology was but a gleam in the developer’s eye. Battery service was, in the majority of cases, an in-house task. Routine visual inspection, the scheduled collection of voltage and specific gravity readings, coupled with the experience of the technicians and their local knowledge, was what made it all work.

The individual interpretation of battery reliability based on collected battery data can be very subjective. Using real data collected over 20 years, this presentation will look at the possible interpretations of that data based on typically used criteria. It will then compare how those interpretations do or do not correlate with a subsequent discharge.

In this work we present the life test procedures and results of our search for a lead alloy grid having a substantially lower corrosion rate than that we presently employ.

We consider battery-monitoring systems as a tool that is used to help us maintain a reliable battery back up to serve our client - information systems and processing. A tool much as a voltmeter, ammeter, hydrometer and a flashlight. None alone can tell you how your system is doing, but all together can give you an indication of how well it will perform.

Battery monitoring has finally started to attract some attention, twenty years after the concept was originally introduced. It sure took a long time to convince all those guys that believed that a bulb hydrometer was all they needed to determine a Battery's state of health. Once a concept has been introduced and is proven popular, it does not take long for new products to follow. Today we are seeing an influx of monitors that range from a full function sophisticated computer driven monitor to devices that only monitor one single parameter. This leaves the user with the dilemma of choosing the right one from all those clever ads that proclaim the best product on the market.

Useful information is crucial to the proper maintenance and management of your backup battery supplies. Information for alarms, reports and trending needs to be accurate and timely. Whether you manage five sites, five hundred or five thousand, there are measurements to be taken and information to be gleaned!

The role of monitoring process and equipment has been around since the industrial revolution. In ever increasing spirals of demand and sophistication, everything including stationary batteries is fair game for some form of monitoring. The most intelligent of these monitors is the educated human with sufficient relief for rest and nourishment. Beyond that, forms of machinery and electronics, assisted by software intelligence perform the majority of monitoring duties.

This paper presents recommended battery protection practices to accurately protect the battery associated DC plant, operations, and personnel while considering economic investment. Subjects discussed include: battery protection device selections, DC current protection variables, short-circuit battery potential, and DC plant illustrations.

There are many different rules, regulations and standards affecting stationary battery selection, installation, operation and maintenance. Some of these address the battery while others address the battery room or other associated equipment. The following is intended to be a brief listing and discussion of these various rules and standards and not a legal interpretation.

No available description.

The lead-acid battery is the technology widely used in off-grid PV systems, mainly the automotive and deep cycle types. This paper presents the main degradation phenomena in lead acid batteries used in PV (sulfation, stratification, corrosion, and active mass degradation) laboratory tests that induce the main degradations, and the results of tests on OPzS batteries from two manufacturers in 14 different groups.

Batteries are critical components in cellular telephone systems. In the remote, unmanned, and sometimes hostile environment that the majority of the carrier equipment is deployed, batteries are depended upon to provide reserve power on demand. All too often, the selection, installation and maintenance of these components are handled by telecommunications professionals who are not knowledgeable about batteries or charging equipment. On the other hand, the battery suppliers, insta1lers, and maintainers may be unfamiliar with the ce1lular telephone environment. It is the intention of this paper to be of assistance to all of those involved in the selection, installation, and maintenance process. In keeping with the ce1lular industry's battery of choice, only the Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) battery will be discussed.

The increase in continuous loads such as radio transmitters and microprocessors in substations has led some utilities, including ours, to take a closer look at the sizing of the stationary batteries that operate those stations when commercial power is lost. Critical functions, such as tripping circuit breakers and conununicating information to dispatch centers, are placed on DC power. When station power is present, that DC power for the continuous loads is supplied by the charger. When conunercial power is lost, however, the continuous loads are carried by the batteries, which must also have the capacity to operate tripping mechanisms. IEEE Standard 485 I is widely accepted as the guideline for sizing of stationary batteries, and its application is discussed. Once a battery is placed in service, its maintenance, monitoring and periodic testing protocols are the next issues that the utility considers. Those practiced by this utility are discussed, including monitoring of the presence of DC power at certain critical points by SCADA equipment.

This paper will provide an overview of NAS technology, energy storage applications and the AEP/DOE/EPRI test program and demonstration.

This paper attempts to explain how battery life is affected when the ambient temperature is characterized by frequent peaks of both hot and cold. It then proposes a format for battery manufacturers to inform their customers what life to reasonably expect from any particular battery model when it is operated in the conditions in which the customer will actually place it.

Over the past twenty-five plus years, battery testing and replacement of batteries has changed. In addition, testing equipment has changed dramatically. Testing equipment in the 1960's and 1970's typically consisted of manually switched light bulbs with analog voltmeters to measure voltage across a shunt and overall terminal voltage. Today, resistor banks are typically used instead of light bulbs. Digital multimeters and chart recorders have replaced analog voltmeters. And we have been computerized as some systems can automatically hold constant current as the voltage drops and vary the load to meet a service test as well as record the discharge rate and voltage. Testing frequency has changed, defmitions of degradation have changed and inclusion of the modified performance test has changed the amount of testing at nuclear facilities. This paper will discuss the current requirements and provide some examples of applying these requirements to actual design duty cycles.

Reliability of standby batteries is essential in many vital applications and the systems need to be inspected and tested at regular intervals. These tests may be characterized as diagnostic, defined as collecting measurement results indicating battery problems, or actual discharge tests to measure the true battery capacity. There are several methods available for doing battery diagnostics like cell voltage monitoring or impedance/conductance/ internal resistance measurements. This presentation is not covering these methods but instead presenting a different approach for doing discharge testing using a short term capacity rating instead of the standard 8h rating.

Conditions that cause a VRLA battery system to vent hydrogen can be controlled, making additional ventilation unnecessary in most cases. This paper provides a basic explanation of VRLA battery systems and alternative methods for controlling hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide off-gassing. A check list is proposed for assessing when additional room ventilation is or is not appropriate.

There are probably as many reasons to develop a certification program as there are associations out there developing them. Typically the need presents itself, leading to discussions within the association. In BICSI's case, it was a reaction to governmental deregulation that led to our first registration (certification) program. The association felt the need to differentiate qualified individuals to consumers, since the government now allowed anyone to offer this service.

Lead acid batteries are often viewed as at the end of the development cycle and are being overlooked for important emerging markets, such as grid-scale storage and urban EV’s. Yet, an alternative "bipolar" architecture could offer significant performance and cost advantages over conventional monopolar designs. This paper presents an advanced bipolar lead-acid battery (B-LAB), which has been extensively validated. This technology leverages the existing lead acid production and recycling infrastructure. The performance and manufacturing economics of BLAB are examined and compared to Li-ion for stationary and light-duty urban EV’s.

Assigning a separate section of building and fire codes to stationary storage battery systems avoids unnecessary, complicated, and costly requirements set forth in the hazardous materials chapters of the codes and presents best practices and national consistency for manufacturers, designers, contractors, building officials, and users.

This paper goes further to discuss how much effort was put into investigating the casual factors that resulted in the seemingly lackluster battery performance.

In this paper, a telecom user relies on his 20+ years of experience and knowledge of operating lead acid batteries to describe the methods, means, and possibilities of achieving “guaranteed performance” of your battery system. The author also provides a user’s view on the realistic service life expectancy of the lead acid battery and why the VRLA battery is limited as such.

Shows the results of an EPRI funded investigation into the impact of a seismic event on the capacity of naturally aged 2 volt VRLA batteries of approximately 10 years of age. One set of data is for one manufacturer’s product using a 72 hour discharge rate, and the second system was a different manufacturer using an 8 hour rate.

This paper describes the testing done, using constant resistance loads, to determine the capacity of a battery. From the results of this testing, a procedure and process is developed to utilize constant resistance testing for capacity evaluation of a battery and trending of results.

This paper provides basic information for stationary-power technologists interested in exploiting electrochemical capacitor technology.

Nickel cadmium batteries are widely regarded as the most reliable industrial stationary battery available today even when exposed to extremes of environment and abusive charge regimes. Nevertheless some users of nickel cadmium batteries experience disappointment when carrying out capacity tests in accordance with IEEEII06 recommendations. This paper describes the effect of utilizing discharge data generated by IEC methodology in capacity testing from constant potential charge conditions. The paper also discusses the importance of referring to the initial application engineering of the battery for capacity testing over life and a possible error in IEEEI106 pass / fail criteria.

The purpose of this paper is to address questions like this and demystify the use of catalysts in VRLA cells by offering a simplified explanation of what is occurring inside the cell once a catalyst is introduced into it.

This paper describes the performance of a Zinc Regenarative Fuel Cell (ZRFC) observed while backing up a complete cell site, built at Metallic Power's development laboratory in Carlsbad, CA.

Very few customers ever question the value or interpretation of the parameters being used to report on the condition of the battery. As a result, the risk of battery failure may be much greater than they understood from the description of the product or services they purchased. This paper will examine how the value of a battery management program can be measured.

This paper addresses current codes, with specific emphasis on the Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). The role of the AHJ has expanded to various entities, from the fire departments to even departments inside your own organization enforcing corporate responsibility. Also covered is the trend of the AHJ to modify or create hybrid codes and how important it is to not only know the national codes, but what specifically pertains to your area.

This procedure supplements existing industry standards and is intended to provide the user with the minimum recommended acceptance/capacity test procedures for Central Telephone Office battery plants. Additionally, this procedure describes two different methods of loading a Central Telephone Office battery plant during a capacity test. Both methods are technically correct and will be discussed later in this procedure. It is the user's responsibility to determine the appropriate test method for their respective installation. This procedure requires the use of automated battery capacity test equipment but does not endorse or require a specific manufacturer or model of test equipment.

Failure of a data center's UPS system can mean substantial losses, and batteries are consistently a leading root cause of those failures. The key to avoiding these losses is being able to accurately identify and service battery strings that are at risk - insights that can be extrapolated from data. This paper will focus on data-driven analysis by detailing one project in which a team used millions of data points, gathered over 12 years, to compare the operational performance of customers’ individual units to the historic performance of the same model in similar environments and applications. The paper will expound on the data acquisition and advanced big-data analysis process that enabled the team to accurately forecast remaining service life, including correlation of the effects of nine key external factors from the historic battery service life portfolio.

This paper is intended to communicate the changes in NERC Standard PRC-005-2 that is currently in draft form. PRC-005-2 is a control and protection document and details maintenance activities on many pieces of equipment, including batteries. This paper captures all the battery specific information and prepares the reader for the upcoming changes in maintenance requirements.

Service providers are deploying fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP) networks because of the many potential advantages those networks offer to both carriers and their customers. The most important advantages of FTTP deployment are increased revenue to the carrier and increased functionality to the customer. Ultimately, carriers desire higher customer satisfaction and lower operating costs, both of which lead to increased revenues. FTTP networks help to accomplish these goals because they enable carriers to improve existing services and introduce many new ones.

It started when I observed that six IEEE standards had four different definitions for the same term. On closer examination I found several other contradictory terms as well. The Stationary Battery Committee created a Glossary Working Group to look into what terms were in conflict. We found about a hundred terms defined among the various standards. “That shouldn’t take long,” we thought. Then we decided that maybe we should look at what other definitions were in use throughout industry. Two years, two dozen meetings, and over 1500 line items later, the group has been reduced to a few glassy-eyed, mumbling disbelievers. This paper explains the work of the committee, its goals and guidelines, and provides several examples of words, the meaning of which maybe you thought you knew… but maybe not!

Commercial applications for lithium-ion reserve power systems are emerging for niche applications that have traditionally utilized lead acid or nickel based systems. The hybrid nature of these systems requires unique design, development, and testing considerations for system developers and also presents new variables that the end user must consider when evaluating and purchasing these new technology products.

More and more new battery technologies are being offered for standby applications, with their manufacturers extolling the virtues of the product and, sometimes, glossing over the shortcomings. Potential users have lacked the tools to enable a complete evaluation of a new battery system and a comparison with traditional options, at least until the publication of IEEE Std 1679-2010, IEEE Recommended Practice for the Characterization and Evaluation of Emerging Energy Storage Technologies in Stationary Applications. This paper describes the origination of IEEE 1679, the outline of the document, and some examples of situations it can help avoid. Properly implemented, this new standard indeed enables a battery version of comparing apples with oranges.

There are two families of alloys generally employed in the manufacture of industrial lead-acid batteries. This paper discusses the significant performance and maintenance characteristics and life implications of each alloy.

This paper will analyze the monitoring regimes of surveyed utility VRLA end users and compare them with the age of the installation at the first cell replacement.

Compared with VRLA batteries, LFP batteries possess some outstanding advantages, such as small volume, light weight, high discharge power, fast charge, and very long service life. For big UPS's in IDCs, where large quantities of batteries are needed, LFP batteries could replace VRLA batteries. When the backup time of the UPS is short, LFP batteries can be as economical as their VRLA battery counterparts.

In most industries, fire safety is addressed by following guidelines set forth by nationally recognized standards, such as those issued by the National Fire Protection Association. However, in the lithium-ion battery industry, the vast majority of existing standards and safety certifications are only intended to address the cell and pack level. However, cell level safety standards cannot completely assess system safety. Several methodologies, such as fault trees, HAZOPS, and What If analysis can be used as a framework for a hazard assessment. These methods rely on engineering and scientific tools, such as testing, analysis or computational simulations to evaluate specific fire or failure scenarios. This paper presents a brief overview of the current state of regulations and standards for industries that use lithium-ion batteries. Common methodologies used for hazards assessments will also be discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to share case histories of accidents, fires and near-miss events and several quick, simple and inexpensive steps that would have avoided them. The cases regard battery handling gone wrong, exciting moments in UPS and dc plant work, and injuries that didn’t need to happen. While our jobs aren’t rocket science, nobody explained that to the hydrogen.

In order to provide optimum performance in stationary applications, the attributes of NiMH battery technology must be taken into proper consideration during battery system design and subsequent use. This paper will discuss the NiMH technology, how some of the application challenges have been met, and the benefits the technology provides to some specific applications.

Several papers have been presented over the past several years on the qualities of lithium-ion batteries for various applications, including standby power. This paper will look at the advantages and disadvantages of both the lead-acid and lithium-ion technologies and examine the places where the authors believe each technology can play an important role.

No available description.

With the reliability of static and rotary UPS and charger systems proven over many years, the weakest link in a UPS system is still the battery. It makes sense therefore to try to ensure your battery is as reliable as possible. However, why go to the expense of a continuous monitoring system for your standby battery when you have engineers who can carry out planned maintenance routines?

Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery technology offers significant promise as a stationary energy storage solution. However, until recently, little has been seen in the way of tangible products for stationary applications. 2015 witnessed the launch of a unique new NiMH battery-based backup power system for small cells as well as the successful completion of a two year field test of a 2MW NiMH battery system on the Washington, DC Metrorail. This presentation will review NiMH attributes and compare results of side-by-side testing with VRLA and NiCd batteries under GR-3168 recommended protocols. Attendees will be also be introduced to the designs and performance capabilities of the small cell power system and the substation-scale battery system mentioned above.

Some significant changes related to stationary batteries are occurring in both NFPA 70 and NFPA 70E. These changes could affect the installation and maintenance of stationary battery systems. This paper will outline all the changes and the rationale behind them. The future direction of both of these documents will be discussed as well.

Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) systems are an essential element in modern-day industry. These UPS systems must themselves be resistant to battery failure to guarantee that they will be providing power when necessary. In this paper, we discuss a tool for detecting unusual behavior in battery resistance, and we present a case study demonstrating the effectiveness of this tool on real-world battery data.

This paper will describe how the user and battery manufacturer/vendor can negotiate a warranty, differing from the standard battery warranty, that will keep the vendor and user from disagreeing over minor issues when it comes time to make a (hopefully rare) warranty claim.

This paper carefully reviews the papers and reports that were used to develop the dc arc flash table in NFPA 70E and provides practical PPE recommendations for performing battery maintenance tasks. The paper also addresses what PPE is appropriate for battery maintenance activities.

There continues to be confusion in the stationary battery community about how to protect battery maintenance personal from chemical, electrical and arc-flash hazards. This presentation proposes a thought process that can be used to, first, evaluate if and where a hazard may exist in workplaces where dc voltage sources are present, then to determine the degree of risk, and ultimately to determine the personal protective equipment (PPE) that would be appropriate for any given battery activity.

There is growing interest in the deployment of lithium-ion batteries in traditional standby applications. Making a proper assessment of the suitability of such batteries is filled with complexity, however. This paper outlines the pros and cons of the different lithium-ion technologies for UPS, telecom outside plant, and utility switchgear applications, and provides guidance on system design for successful operation.

There are concerns among owners and managers of Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) in the operation of their UPS battery plant(s) to the risk of DC ground faults and to the timely detection and alarming of a ground fault before it can escalate into a serious or catastrophic event.

This paper will explore several topics regarding problems test technicians encounter with basic battery performance testing. In the end, erroneous data is frequently the result. Retesting because a test was improperly set up or conducted is costly and time consuming. The intent of the paper is to bring the more common issues to light. Processes and methodologies that will help ensure a properly executed performance test will be discussed.

From time to time, stationary batteries may exhibit anomalies that require corrective action in the course of their operation. Some of these are easily correctable, while others require some detective work to solve. Sometimes a problem is not with the battery, rather, it may be the manner in which it is being tested or maintained by the user. This paper identifies some common and some not so common problems the user may encounter. VRLA and VLA battery types will be discussed.

After a stationary battery has been deemed spent (used) and is no longer required, it must be carefully managed and steered through a disposal and reclamation process. Failing this, the owner can fall foul of several regulatory requirements that may result in various legal actions and heavy fines or imprisonment. The owner is deemed, in many cases to be the person or entity that takes delivery of the battery from the manufacturer and uses that battery. Spent batteries are also referred to as junks or cores.

The increasing power demand for transport equipment is stretching traditional DC (direct current) power distribution topologies beyond their ability to power the new loads economically. This trend in larger load sizes is leading to a renewed interest in a distributed form of DC Power architecture where the DC source is located closer to the load. Compact switch mode DC power plants and current battery technology have matured enough to embrace a fundamental shift in equipment deployment strategy and practices. For this reason, Telecommunication Service Providers (TSP) are looking for DC Power equipment and battery technology that supports this shift in traditional deployment.

For many years, FIAMM has been manufacturing and distributing Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries (VRLA) for a large spectrum of applications. As of today hundreds of thousand of cells and modules have been deployed around the world particularly in telecom installations. The proposed paper summarizes this experience and analyzes three main critical areas: Design, operations and safety. Issues like choice of manufacturing materials, acceptance testing and installation procedures are analyzed and discussed. The paper reports also the results of some battery testing, with particular reference to ohmic measurements for acceptance and warranty claims.

This paper will describe the tools and considerations in designing a Lithium-Metal-Polymer (LP) battery for safety. Safety is the most important design goal. With technology seeming to change at nearly the speed of light squared, anytime you have mass, particularly in a small space, as Einsteind demonstrated 100 year ago, you have a lot of energy. This paper will focus on the key challenges in making this lithium-based energy storage system safe and the design methodology employed.

The use of steering diode circuitry is not new, but the way diodes are applied is being examined as a solution for ensuring system reliability. This paper examines critical considerations in applying this technology and how diodes behave. Aside from obvious motivations to ensure reliability, there is pressure from customers and the government to provide additional assurances. It was assumed adding a parallel battery string would be adequate, but we now know this solution requires additional engineering consideration. After this presentation, attendees will understand how to specify and implement steering diodes in a typical battery application and how options may be implemented to prove the reliability of the steering diodes.

This paper presents a new approach to the detection of capacity loss in standby batteries. The system described is able to detect deterioration much earlier and more reliably than the current ohmic methods of impedance and resistance. The first 10% to 20% of deterioration or capacity loss can be detected, enabling changeouts to be scheduled before the battery becomes unreliable.

There are mission critical equipment configurations where the installation window is available for only a short duration. The successful completion of the installation requires permission from the client to interrupt the configuration, skilled technical personnel, pre tested equipment units to be installed and a planned outage schedule. This paper describes the performance testing of 50 each 1 KVA UPS systems with detached one-hour battery installation at twenty different locations, 1000 total installations across the USA. Failure of the UPS or battery after the installation was not acceptible.

Availability, is usually interpreted as the total time a system is capable of performing its intended function divided by the total time the system is required to be operable. This value is usually expressed as a percentage. Applying this definition of availability to batteries we must be able to determine the battery's state of charge and know a battery's capacity (history) to determine whether it is available or not. There are two common methods for assessing the state of charge of a lead-acid battery discussed in the latest IEEE std. 450[1]. The most common method used in the past has been electrolyte specific gravity (S.G.) measurement readings taken with a hydrometer from one or more cells of the battery. The other method to determine the battery's state of charge is the use of a stabilized charging (float) current measured with a sensitive clamp-on ammeter, or a suitable shunt and voltmeter. Both of these methods are correct and commonly used. Recent downsizing and other cost cutting efforts have reduced the manpower available for maintenance and trending have now made the use of speciftc gravity readings very costly in some cases or impossible to take in others. Some users have turned to automatic monitoring systems with remote reporting capabilities to routinely collect battery data. In addition, many installations have valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries which have no provision for measuring specific gravity. With the large numbers of VRLA batteries now in service and being sold today, the use of the float current method of assessing state of charge is expected to increase.

The IEEE PES Stationary Battery Standards Committee recognizes that specific training on battery system installation and maintenance is necessary. The subcommittee also recognizes that existing training of battery maintenance and installation technicians is generally non-existent, or at the least, non-standard. With those thoughts in mind, the IEEE PES Stationary Battery Committee is presently preparing a guide for training to specify the types of knowledge a battery installation or maintenance technician must possess in order to safely and effectively work on lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries. The document will define the areas of recommended knowledge for installers and maintainers of stationary batteries and related systems to the extent that they affect the battery. The purpose of the IEEE document is to provide an outline of the necessary items that should be covered by those developing training programs for stationary battery installation and maintenance personnel. At this time, the document is an unapproved draft of a proposed IEEE Standard. As such, this document is subject to change.

Outlines the long road of design and testing that has lead to the development of a true high temperature lead-acid battery. Based on optimized designs and materials, new lead-acid products have been developed that not only survive but thrive in high heat applications. These high temperature batteries were developed using a common sense approach that relied on historical data, supplier input, new materials, new designs and theories.

High float current acceptance in VRLA batteries can cause cell imbalance, internal cell heating, and eventual dry-out and capacity failure. A variety of methods have been used to lower float current acceptance and postpone dry out, including catalysts and changes to materials and internal cell design. This paper discusses the development of a new, low float current, large format VRLA battery, comparing accelerated life test results to a narrow plate, low float current design and an older, wide plate design.

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) is a very attractive positive active material because of features such as large discharge capacity of 160 mAh/g and has demonstrated long life even at high temperatures The current LiFePO4 chemistries, however, have shown to have poor high rate discharge capability. Therefore, in order to improve this chemistry, prototype lithium-ion cells with an improved LiFePO4/Gr electrode system have been developed. We made and evaluated 4Ah cells and 50Ah cells. The cells showed superior discharge performance with a flat voltage profile and maintain capacity retention of 98% even at high currents of 10CA. Furthermore, even after long term cycling at high ambient temperature of 45oC, the cells retain a much higher capacity than conventional LiMn2O4/Gr chemistry. We compared the new chemistry with identically sized conventional LiMn2O4/Gr system cells (same cell case and terminals). The new cells have almost the same charge/discharge energy (Wh) and power capability (W). However, the LiFePO4 cells showed much better life performance, especially at high temperature condition.

Currently, lead-acid batteries are used as a back-up power source for telecommunication applications. Lead-acid batteries are a very mature technology and have a long history of use in the industry, and as such, its operating and life parameters are fairly well understood. However, in the case of deployment in multi-story buildings, a lighter and smaller battery is required to reduce the floor weight loading, even though the power and energy requirements are not reduced. Lithium-ion batteries have much higher specific energy and energy density that enable a 70% reduction of weight and volume compared with lead-acid batteries. Therefore, a 200Ah and 400Ah class Lithium-Ion battery has been developed which can meet the energy storage and weight and volume requirements of the application. These batteries show approximately 30% of the weight and volume of lead acid batteries and also demonstrate excellent discharge performance even in low temperature environments. Moreover, since the lithium-ion cell voltage is 4V per cell, it reduces the number of cells connected in series to meet the same total system voltage. As for maintenance, the lithium-Ion battery is maintenance free: it is hermetically sealed, it has no memory effect, and it requires no electrolyte level adjustment like flooded lead acid and nickel cadmium batteries. The life performance of this new lithium-ion battery is being evaluated, and to date it shows almost the same performance as previously demonstrated with smaller cells using the same chemistry.

This paper describes short-circuit tests conducted at Brookhaven National Laboratory for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission on three vented lead-acid battery strings of 12 cells (24 volt nominal systems) and each of two 24 volt battery chargers (a controlled ferroresonant and an SCR design). The tests compared the battery and charger responses individually and when connected in parallel, the configuration most commonly used in safety related DC power distribution systems at U.S. nuclear power plants and in other power system DC distribution systems that provide a backup power function. The paper also discusses how test results may provide empirical data to support improvements to industry standards that offer guidance on DC system short circuit characteristics and electrical protection design, and to the NRC's oversight of DC distribution system protection coordination.

The annual U.S. energy storage market will near 1.7 gigawatts by 2020 and have a value of $2.5 billion. This remarkable growth will be driven by new power and energy applications for batteries. One key to the emerging energy storage market is the increasing maturity of the microgrid as a means of providing value to power producers and consumers. This paper will discuss the role of battery based energy storage systems (BESS) in the successful development of microgrid projects. The benefits provided by batteries in microgrids include increased energy security, improved power quality, and access to smart, agile energy management strategies. These benefits will be explained and examples of successful battery projects will be cited.

Reliable testing companies with sophisticated battery testing equipment have been available in most parts of the United States for the past 10 years. Battery capacity testing remains an important part of the current IEEE maintenance standards. However, many myths still prevail in the industry.

The intent of this paper is to examine how chargers of different topologies behave under short circuit conditions. Variables such as the choice of overcurrent protective device, fault location, charger voltage, and charger topology are examined towards understanding the arc-flash incident energy.

High density Data Center topology is one of the biggest challenges of our industry. With power densities rising from 150 W/sf to over 1,000 W/sf, the Data Center infrastructure is definitely changing – the Data Center compound is about 1.2% in the US load. In addition, the efficiency factor becomes more important in every decision, the reason being the fact that operational costs of the Data Centers have a 30-50% compound of energy cost!

This paper outlines the objectives and most important provisions of the European Union’s Battery Directive 2006/66/EC. It will give you a short description of the political background and an overview of the national implementation status in the 27 EU member states. The main part of the article will focus on the scope of the Directive and try to answer as precisely as possible the most important questions of industry.

NERC is in the process of updating the battery maintenance requirements in the reliability standard PRC-005. This is the standard that outlines the maintenance requirements for all protective devices in a Bulk Power System. The purpose of this paper is to familiarize the end user with the battery maintenance requirements for both the current standard as well as the upcoming changes.

The authors ofthis article believe that static measurements of a single electrical parameter provide insufficient data to characterize battery quality and/or the state of health to a sufficiently meaningful degree of accuracy. To illustrate this point of view let's consider that some measurements of a car are taken to determine the quality and level of its performance. One researcher measures the cars physical dimensions with great accuracy. Then another does a speed assessment, and other researchers measure the fuel consumption, noise level and so on. Each researcher may be able to claim some degree of correlation between his measurements and total car quality, but it is obvious that regardless of the accuracy of their measuring tools and techniques, only by combining the results can the cars performance be assessed- with a low probability of error.

UPS facilities frequently employ batteries and charging equipment in enclosed spaces that can experience malfunctions such as thermal runaway and hydrogen gas leaks. Early warning detection systems are available that offer combined detection of overheating materials as well as hydrogen gas so that remedial action can be taken before serious injury or property damage occurs. This paper presents the technology and how it is applied in battery spaces.

Superimposed AC ripple on lead-acid batteries used in float service has the potential to produce battery heating depending upon the AC magnitude and frequency. Battery service life is roughly halved the life for every lOoC increase in temperature. To date, few actual test results have been published to equate the magnitude of AC ripple with the resulting temperature rise and actual impact on service life. In this paper, we present actual VRLA product responses to AC ripple and discuss the potential impacts on life.

This paper discusses the various ways that lead-acid batteries can be charged and monitored in order to achieve better life and reliability.

Reviews different building DC energy architectures using alternate battery technologies, showing how layouts are impacted and how cost and energy savings can be realized. This will include cost of copper, installation, efficiency of operation and structural impacts.

We will examine the subject of discharge testing in light of what is occurring in the utility industry with a specific look at transmission and distribution system batteries. In so doing, we will rely on Mr. Gogan’s paper along with the responses to the paper by Mr. J. Marrero and L. Meisner. Two excellent papers have been published on the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) standards at the last two Battcons by Mr. T. Chapman.

IEEE Std. 450™-2010 and IEEE Std. 1188™-2008 amended by IEEE Std. 1188a™-2014 and other battery related standards such as NERC PRC-005 require a visual inspection of the battery. What exactly does this mean? This paper will describe a methodological approach to visual inspection of the battery and battery room that, if followed, will help the user spot potential problems. The procedure is illustrated by photographs and descriptions of actual problems experienced by the authors. The causes and effects will be discussed.

In this paper, the authors will discuss the AC ripple during float, charge and discharge state of batteries in UPS installations. There are three types of AC signal capable to make some monitoring system useless. the magnitude and source for each signal will be explained later. the typical AC waveforms for various installations as well as the load supplied by the batteries will also presented and discussed.

The valve regulated battery (VRLA) has been of principal concern to the telecom industry when used in the outside plant environment. Although this "stationary battery" was conceived and engineered to be used in climate-controlled environments, it has become the battery of choice in outside plant applications. The use of "flooded" batteries just wasn't practical in this application, principally due to corrosive fumes, hydrogen buildup and frequent maintenance.

Traditional lead-acid batteries are limited in their ability to operate in environments where reliable power is not available or regular discharges occur without a subsequent recharge. These incomplete cycles left Lithium-Ion as one of the only viable options for many applications. New advanced lead carbon battery technology makes partial state of charge (PSoC) operation possible, increasing battery life and cycle counts for lead based batteries. An analysis of the economic benefits of advanced lead-carbon battery technology is summarized in addition to operational guidance to achieve these benefits.

This paper will provide a case study of Aquion Energy’s first commercial microgrid project, which was deployed at a commercial facility in Jenner, CA. The microgrid is a solar/diesel hybrid generation system with 60kWh of Aquion’s Aqueous Hybrid Ion (AHI™) batteries providing energy storage and allowing the system to maximize the portion of the customer load served by solar energy.

The recent FCC mandate requiring extended operability of telecom base stations has caused the industry to scramble to find solutions. This paper will provide an overview of stored energy solutions geared to satisfy these requirements. Using the eight-hour backup time as a baseline, we will illustrate both initial and total cost of ownership costs for three common and one novel approach.

This paper describes the energy storage system data acquisition and control (ESS DAC) system used for testing energy storage systems at the Battery Energy Storage Technology Test and Commercialization Center (BEST T&CC) in Rochester, NY. The system performs functional, performance, and application testing of energy storage systems from 1KW to more than 2MW. This paper contains an overview of the system architecture and the components that comprise the system, practical considerations for testing a wide variety of energy storage technology, as well as a recent test scenario for community energy storage system testing.

Power utilities and large industrial power consumers look at ESS’s (Energy Storage Systems) for grid stabilization. Any storage capacity in the grid does not replace the requirement of the UPS, which always has to be closest to the critical load. On the other hand, a UPS with adequate ESS can introduce energy management at the consumer level and support grid stability. A technical and economic evaluation is given on the options for ESS’s with respect to the most important requirements for UPS and energy management at the consumer level.

Ecoult has designed and installed a cycling battery / inverter system in a remote, diesel-powered telecom tower in Australia and has monitored system performance over an eight month period. Fuel savings of 40% to 50%+ have been recorded during this time. This paper describes the off-grid telecom market and gives details of the energy storage system and algorithms developed by Ecoult to effect significant fuel savings and fast payback times. Results are applicable to telecoms and other remote diesel micro-grids.

Are some batteries as “green” as their manufacturers claim, or is this an attempt at greenwash? This paper puts such claims in perspective while discussing various ways in which batteries can generate significant energy savings.

Recommended practices for battery maintenance and testing on lead-acid batteries are well defined in IEEE 4501 and IEEE 11882. Unfortunately in many (most) cases, the IEEE recommended maintenance practices are not followed properly, the data is not being analyzed correctly or the technicians are not properly trained. Many times it is all of the above. Consequently, given how many users perform/contract maintenance improperly and the reality that many users are satisfied with just “making it to the generator,” the value of many battery maintenance activities is questionable.

The following is a review of an audit of existing Local, County, State and Federal laws, codes, ordinances and requirements regarding the environmental storage, handling, spill, containment and disposal of Stationary Lead-Acid Battery Systems (SLABS). SLABS are extensively used for interruptible power systems, telecommunications and for providing facility emergency power.

Stationary lead-acid battery systems are used extensively for uninterrupted power supplies and in facility emergency power systems. The sulfuric acid and lead used in many of these batteries is classified as a hazardous material due to its corrosivity. The resultant battery electrotype is also considered a hazardous material for this same reason. Electrolyte is a sulfuric acid and water solution.

EPA has lots of forms, rules and regulations. You’d better know what they are for batteries or it could cost you a lot of money. This presentation tells you what you need to do and when, where, how and why to do it.

One of the most common reoccurring issues seen in the world of battery testing today is the request from field personnel asking for "Ohmic Test Reference Values". These battery users with a variety of battery types installed are eagerly looking for a more efficient ways to determine the relative state of health of all their battery sites. This challenge becomes more difficult with the proliferation of installed batteries and the availability of qualified technicians prepared to perform scheduled battery maintenance. This paper will present ideas describing how and why to utilize Ohmic test instruments in a managed battery maintenance program designed to maximize technician productivity and improve overall system reliability.

Lithium ion (Li-ion) battery technology is making its inroads into high availability applications, including data centers. Failure of a data center’s uninterruptable power supply (UPS) system can lead to substantial economic and customer/user satisfaction losses. Li-ion battery systems represent different risks, operational considerations, and costs when compared with lead-acid based systems.

Today’s telecommunications networks demand backup power solutions that provide highly reliable, cost-effective power for extended periods of time. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems are proving to be an attractive alternative to traditional and existing solutions such as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries and gensets. As fuel cell technologies become a viable solution for industries such as telecommunications, utilities, UPS, etc, the remaining obstacles are hydrogen storage and re-supply for long duration (extended run) backup power requirements. Additionally, at remote installation locations such as telecommunications tower sites, hydrogen can prove to be difficult, bulky and heavy to store, and maintenance to re-supply industrial hydrogen cylinders in these remotes sites is not feasible. Reforming technologies and fuel cell products that incorporate reformers exist today that eliminate these obstacles and pave the way for even broader network applications.

TELUS is Canada’s fastest-growing national telecommunication company. With $12.0 billion of annual revenue and 13.7 million customer connections, they rely on a large number of batteries, of which about 1200 are 2-volt VRLA's. Extending the lives of these assets and reducing premature failures are key to fueling network growth. This paper discusses the catalyst rehydration procedure as a safe and practical method of extending the useful life for about 240 strings in the TELUS network.

Gary will be presenting on a study commissioned by the AT& T Remote Terminal Power Committee to determine the extent of overcharging issues associated with the J1C182BA. The study revealed a significant number of these legacy power systems overcharge batteries. Charge control devices were installed to verify they could effectively control the J1C182BA float voltage.

Several nonintrusive, continuous battery monitoring devices for lead-acid batteries in standby applications, such as uninterruptible power systems (UPS), are available today on the market. Some of them are using impedance measurements on every bloc of a battery string for determining the state of health of each bloc. The paper will present the results of an extensive validation test, comparing the results provided on the one hand by low cost monitoring devices and on the other hand by a full scale, laboratory impedance spectroscope. For the validation tests, accelerated ageing on many different leadacid battery products have been performed. The batteries vary in terms of size (Ah), bloc voltage, battery brands and technologies. The targeted standby applications often use large batteries consisting of many single cells or monoblocs with six or twelve volts each connected in series. These batteries grow old during their utilization and show several ageing phenomena, which could lead to a reduced bridging time and, therefore, unforeseen failure of the system connected to the UPS in case of blackout. Nonhomogenous ageing of the cells or monoblocs is much more the normal case than homogenous ageing of all elements.

This paper will present some considerations regarding personnel safety and selection of devices for clearing faults successfully and safely.

In the telecommunications industry, batteries have been a critical element of the backup power system for providing power during an AC outage. The rechargeable lead acid batteries, the flooded type in particular, have been used extensively in indoor central offices. They are reliable and have a long life for the application. However, they are heavy and take up a lot of space. For the last 15 years, valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries have gained in popularity due to their compact foot print and higher energy density. They have been deployed extensively in outdoor cabinets, controlled environment vaults, and huts.

Impedance, conductance and resistance measuring devices are becoming standard tools of the battery maintenance trade. When internal resistance measurements are compared to baseline or previous measurements major changes usually indicate an abnormal condition. But, can one set of measurements (a snap shot) provide useful information? This field comparison was conducted to answer that question.

Vattenfall Research and Development AB (formerly Vattenfall Utveckling AB), in close cooperation with Vattenfall Vattenkraft, ABB AB / Corporate Research and SAFT, has completed an evaluation project for determining the suitability of Lithium-ion batteries as a stationary back up power supply in hydropower plants.

While it is understood that there are two basic valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) designs, which are absorbed glass mat, often referred to as AGM, and gelled electrolyte which is referred to as gelled, this paper will concern itself with the AGM design cells, as that is the type that has the largest installed base in the larger (over 200AH) cells. The batteries in this study are all manufactured by GNB, at least 6 years old when the study was started, and are of the 75 amps per positive series (75A21, 75A23, and 75A25).

Whether you have a large Data Center with thousands of battery cells or multi-cell units or a single UPS with one or two strings, Data Center Managers and UPS owners are always looking to minimize the risk of downtime, avoiding unscheduled maintenance visits and reducing maintenance costs. One action you can take to minimize these events is to have spare units on site that are charged and ready to use.

Reviews the final conceptual test results and present plans for implementation of this test in nuclear applications. Some perspective on capacity trending and various capacity calculation methods described in IEEE 450 will be offered.

The cure to a nagging problem is obvious to you, but that cure costs money and those who can provide the money say no. Don't you just fume when those dunderheads won't approve a sorely needed project? You say you can't get the dollars for decent test equipment? Why can't those accounting people see what's going on? The answer is that what they see depends on what you show them.

The advent of widespread computer technology in the 1970s brought with it the need for uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and these power systems in turn relied on lead-acid batteries for their continuous power support. Within a short time several US companies, saw a commercial opportunity, and individual cell continuous monitoring systems for lead-acid standby batteries have been marketed since the 1980s. With two notable exceptions, the first systems only monitored cell voltage and ambient temperature, and perhaps current, and had a single monitor or grouping system to which all the cells were connected directly, via long wiring harnesses.

There is a lot of confusion over some basic concepts relating to testing stationary batteries. This paper is intended to answer a number of common questions relating to ratings, specifications, and the fundamentals of discharge testing a battery system.

Electrical energy storage has the potential to increase the effectiveness of distributed energy resources and can provide reliability and resiliency to the power grid. However, concerns still exist in regards to the safety, reliability and cost of electrical energy storage. To address these concerns, new technologies are being developed that hold promise for a more safe, reliable, and cost effective electrical storage system. This presentation will review some of these emerging technologies and their status towards commercialization.

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In today’s world market of stationary industrial batteries, we find a large variety of battery types. Interestingly, customers in Europe, North America, and Japan prefer different battery types: Tubular low antimony batteries in Europe, lead-calcium flat plate batteries in North America, low height AGM batteries in Japan. Customers and manufacturers are used to such types over the years, understanding their advantages and sometimes disadvantages. Today, the end user of lead-acid batteries has the choice to buy globally. In this regard, this paper will show comparisons of different battery types based on technical and commercial data, life time experience, and life time testing.

The term “Five Nines” is used to indicate that the Uptime or availability of a service is greater than 99.999% over a year. In practical terms, this equates to a downtime of no more than 5.26 minutes in any one year. The term is most closely associated with data centers, and, regrettably, the battery’s reputation in that industry is not too good. In the most recent Ponemon study into the cost of data center outages sponsored by Vertiv, UPS Failure ranked up there with hacking as the most common reason for data center downtime. Although not broken out in this latest report, the previous reports in 2010 and 2013 identified UPS battery failure as the top root cause of UPS related unplanned outages.

UPSs came on the scene with the advent of large commercial computers that required high quality AC power along with a reserve energy storage to continue supplying power for an orderly shutdown in the event that the primary AC power failed. At the time there were very few choices as far as the type of battery for energy storage. In the lead acid category, the only batteries available were the flooded type that was commonly used as reserve in DC Power applications. The UPS market has grown considerably, with the range of battery energy storage options now from a few watt-hours to several mega watt-hours. During this period a new type of lead acid battery, the Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) was invented. Initially these batteries were produced in the single and double-digit ampere-hour sizes. Over the past two decades the VRLA product has matured and the sizes now range up to 3000 AH for single cell units and 250 AH for six cell modules. The VRLA battery and especially the front terminal, ten year design life type have several unique features that make it an excellent choice in large UPS applications, defined as systems of 500 KVA and larger, where flooded batteries have usually been applied.

The Bureau of Reclamation implemented a pilot program to investigate and demonstrate a fuel cell based system to replace existing backup batteries for microwave telecommunication sites. This paper summarizes the installation and operational experiences as well as the economic and ecological impact of fuel cell technology.

This paper presents a new novel optical infrared electrolyte level detector with insight into the technology it is based on. It reviews different liquid level monitoring approaches and explains why electrolyte level detection has requirements that make conventional and previous solutions unsuitable. The paper explains why this technology is well suited for utility substation applications. Best practices and a glimpse into future versions of the electrolyte level monitoring technology will also be presented.

This paper provides an overview of the photovoltaic power supply with battery as the energy storage device.

Despite significant investments made by end users in preventive maintenance, non-performing starting batteries remain the number one cause of emergency generator (genset) failure. “Weak or undercharged starting batteries are the most common cause of standby generator system failures.”1 “Over 80% of all starting failures… are due to dead starting batteries.”2 When they do fail, generator batteries frequently fail suddenly, seemingly without warning. In contrast, most of our experience with starting batteries in personal and work vehicles is positive. The rate of failure-to-crank in modern vehicles is extremely low. And, prior to vehicle batteries failing, advance warning is frequently available in the form of observable deterioration in engine crank performance, typically caused by the weakening battery.

This presentation provides a brief history of EVs and discusses the significance of Li-ion technologies in the final emergence of commercially viable vehicles. The position of Li-ion in the grid-connected energy storage market is assessed compared to that of other emerging battery technologies, and the likely spillover of these products into the standby market is discussed.

Codes are supposed to make life safer, and that’s a good thing.  But sometimes the code makers – or enforcers – simply get it wrong.  This presentation gives several examples of best intentions gone bad for battery systems.

There is a significant and growing disconnect between the understanding and expectations of end users regarding the warranty coverage provided on VRLA batteries and its correlation to the actual battery performance experienced in most real-world applications. This discussion will focus on the primary issues surrounding current industry practice and explore possible solutions for reducing conflict between manufacturers, end-users, and resellers.

Why do we bother to monitor the connection to building ground on the DC bus, anyway? Most simply, the answer is protection of the cable and – even more important – the safety of personnel. If an AC line cable connects to ground, current flows through the protective devices and disconnects the power protecting the cable. If the DC cables short from the battery, often there is nothing preventing the batteries from providing full short-circuit current to the cabling. If one of the DC bus connections gets connected to the building ground, this sets the stage for a short if the other pole gets shorted to ground as well. Personnel who assume that the floating DC bus is not connected to ground can be electrocuted while working on the DC bus, if while handling the live connectors they ground themselves.

Stationary battery systems are generally employed in mission critical installations and require special consideration from project conception through final test. Such applications include data processing centers, process control, signaling systems and switch gear, to name but a few. However, installation flaws that go undetected can manifest themselves in a variety of ways long after a battery has been started up, signed off and installation personnel are off site. Post-installation anomalies can be avoided. This paper makes recommendations and provides guidelines relating primarily to the handling, installation and bench marking processes for large lead-acid battery systems of the wet and valve regulated varieties. It is hoped that the reader will glean useful information relating to this subject and apply it in a practical manner.

Since their market introduction two decades ago, nickel metal-hydride batteries have demonstrated outstanding safety, performance, and reliability, capturing an ever-growing share of the consumer market and completely dominating hybrid electric vehicles while continued R&D has significantly improved power and energy density, cycle life, and temperature resistance. Applying this advanced battery technology to stationary power applications could yield substantial benefits to the operator, especially in outdoor installations that are routinely exposed to high temperatures.

This paper will discuss the history of lead acid battery technology in Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) applications: How did we get to where we are today; What are the pros and cons of today’s UPS battery designs; and What does the future hold for advancements in lead acid designs to meet the changing needs of the UPS marketplace.

The introduction of new battery technologies by large users has often been accompanied by problems in mating the new batteries with existing equipment and practices. Will the same be true with lithium-based technologies?

This paper discusses the changes that are coming as world demand for batteries continues to evolve.

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The existing proposed NERC PRC-005-2 maintenance requirements standard allows for the substitution of internal ohmic measurements in place of load testing. This is a step backward in assuring operability of the station battery. This paper will show that there has been substantial proof that internal ohmic measurements cannot be used for proving capacity or capability and recommends that this substitution not be allowed.

To begin with, this is not a technical paper. It is a presentation on how the lead market operates (what causes the fluctuations in the LME), how battery manufacturers procure lead and hedge on pricing, and how all of this affects the price of the end product. The paper was written as a result of a request by the technical committee.

Changes in Battery room regulation with International Building Code (IBC), Fire Code (IFC and NFPA), OSHA and best practices with IEEE have left questions on how to maintain compliance and industry standards. VRLA Batteries have specific requirements for compliance with the building codes, fire codes, OSHA and may be subject to additional requirements from Authorities having Jurisdiction (AHJ). Learn the requirements for VRLA batteries and how to be compliant with current regulation. Also learn the various rack compliance requirements and best practices including IBC, UBC, NEBS, IEEE and more.

Over the past 20 years VRLA batteries have grown to become the staple of data center critical power backup systems around the world. Over the course of that time monitoring technologies have developed and become ever more sophisticated in order to allow users of critical VRLA systems some insight in to their state of health. While it is generally accepted that continuous monitoring of lead acid batteries is prudent, unfortunately the cost of such technology, to this day, remains at a point where it can be cost prohibitive. This paper explores an alternative technique of permanent battery monitoring which gives users all of the insight they need at a much-reduced cost.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and International Fire Code (IFC) regulations concerning stationary batteries underwent major changes in 2016 with incorporation of several proposals for additional restrictions and limitations on battery systems. The changes were driven in part by fire officials and insurance companies concerns with the growing deployment of lithium ion batteries within city buildings along with an unfamiliarity with safety aspects associated with battery chemistries from a fire-fighting perspective. The IFC Fire Code Action Committee internally re-wrote Section 608 of the IFC and NFPA-1 Fire Code Technical Committee developed similar changes to Chapter 52 of NFPA-1 with limited user or manufacturer input.

You survived the hurricane, but did your batteries? This paper describes the unseen damage that hurricanes and other natural disasters can inflict on battery systems and how to mitigate the damage. Also addressed are what you will face and need to prepare for during hurricane/disaster recovery.

The VRLA battery can be produced using two differing technologies. Absorbed glass mat technology has lower resistance, while gel technology has better thermal stability and cycle life. A new hybrid technology that combines gelled electrolyte with AGM separators to provide the benefits of both technologies is described.

In this study the parameters necessary to provide efficient hydrogen ventilation are measure and defined.

Despite the enormous growth in the use of VRLA batteries as a primary energy storage solution over the past two decades, the flooded lead acid battery remains a preferred and reliable solution for many truly mission critical back-up applications in the telecommunications, utility, and industrial/switchgear industries. To many, the longer service life and performance predictability of a flooded cell battery is an acceptable trade-off to the generally higher maintenance requirements and increased footprint.

As our understanding of lead-acid batteries grows, the IEEE Stationary Battery Committee has continued the evolution of IEEE Std. 450™ to meet the needs of users. The purpose of this paper is to provide a synopsis of the changes to IEEE Std. 450 between the 2002 and 2010 versions. The focus is on how the changes impact battery maintenance practices. I had the privilege of serving as the working group chair for this revision.

Despite incremental advancements in equipment design, network failures and equipment damage often are the product of ignorance or neglect on the part of battery users. It’s been said that “Success covers a multitude of blunders. At the same time, trusting network reliability, return on investment and perhaps one’s career path to the vicissitudes of luck is hardly prudent.

Battery energy storage is poised for rapid growth in both behind-the-meter and utility-scale installations due in large part to significant reductions in installed costs of this technology. Such energy storage systems can derive revenue by serving a variety of applications which include, among others, demand charge management, energy arbitrage, ancillary services, and resiliency. In many cases, however, the value of the benefits from any one of these applications are still less than the cost of the system. As a result, there is strong interest in stacking revenue streams, or serving multiple applications at different times over the course of a year. The challenge then is to determine which applications to serve and when to serve them, to assure that the economic return of the battery system is maximized over its lifespan.

The growth in the use ofVRLA batteries has slowed over the past year due to concerns with the long-term reliability. In February 1998, C&D Technologies had introduced an internal catalyst to improve the operation of its Liberty 2000 VRLA product by maintaining the negative plate polarization. We reported on the introduction and the research effort that led to that introduction at last years BATTCON 98 conference.l The favorable impact on battery performance, derived from the use of a gas-recombining catalyst placed within the headspace of a VRLA cell, is one of the exciting discoveries of recent times.2 To date, C&D has shipped over 150,000 new cells and have enhanced thousands of older cells, that had been in use for from one to six years, with the internal catalysts. The latter information will address the questions raised at last years conference as to whether the catalyst would be effective in helping older product. This paper will update the participants on how well both new and old products, equipped with the catalyst, are performing. In addition we also have a year more of laboratory testing of product equipped with the catalyst to show the longer term effects on gassing, current draw, and performance.

The electric utility market has experienced an influx of various flooded lead acid battery designs as lower cost solutions to the traditional 20 year design life batteries that have been used for many decades. These batteries are often presented as comparable substitutions to the existing installed batteries without a comprehensive review of the specific requirements of the site.

This paper discusses the technical risks and unintended consequences involved in reducing the run-time of a VRLA UPS battery installation from the traditional 15 minutes to 10 or 5 minutes. A discussion of the proper capacity calculation method is presented. An interesting review of the variations found in mainstream, commercial VRLA products is also presented, which may prove very disconcerting to UPS end-users.

Advancements in DC power plants have resulted in significant increases in functionality and capabilities. These advances range from remote communications to integrated battery testing. By taking a system approach to DC power, users can now cost-effectively determine the condition of many parameters, including battery capacity. Armed with this knowledge, a more effective use of these resources is possible, delivering greater availability at a lower cost.

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The battery failed and is sent back to the laboratory. The laboratory technicians are asked to figure out what went wrong and why. What tests can be performed, and in what order should they carried out? The following is a description of some of the tests one might conduct and what the test results might imply about the design and failure modes of the VRLA Battery.

Secondary lead smelting operations at East Penn’s captive smelter have been previously described by Pike (1990)1 and Leiby (1993 & 2005).2, 3 Since that time, operational changes at EPM have focused on achievement of compliance with strict environmental regulation and the recycling of all the components of spent batteries to the supply of raw materials for the manufacture of new batteries. While achieving desired sustainability, the recycling of Lead, polypropylene, and sulfuric acid directly to the battery manufacturing process allows EPM to further capitalize on the vertical integration of its Lyons, PA manufacturing campus.

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This paper examines individual cell voltage (ICV) variation in both vented and valve-regulated batteries using lead-calcium technology. It will discuss industry data comparing float ICV to battery capacity, Tafel curves and lines, plate polarization, the use of depolarizing agents, and real world data on severe ICV variation.

A new type of battery discharge test named the 80% Service Test was proposed at Battcon 2010. Initial conceptual testing results look promising with more testing underway. This paper presents initial test results and some perspective on possible applications of the 80% Service Test as well as 72-hour discharge testing in general. A two part capacity calculation method will be presented.

Successful MW scale storage projects providing grid ancillary services, wind and solar smoothing and shifting and diesel efficiency optimization will be discussed along with groundbreaking concepts to multi-purpose existing data center and telecom UPS infrastructure to effectively balance discrepancies between supply and demand on the electricity grid, at the same time as delivering reliable UPS service.

Field-installed battery interconnections are largely misunderstood on several levels. These include pre-assembly preparation, use of corrosion inhibitors, the essential need for insulated tools, including a torque wrench, and verification of connection integrity. The author will take attendees to school on these important fundamentals.

Batteries today in standby applications are typically charged with current limited constant voltage charging systems. This charging has two phases; the first is constant current, where the charger remains in current limit until the battery voltage reaches the set voltage limit of the charger, and the second is the constant voltage phase, where the current drops off and the battery voltage is held constant by the battery charger.

The purpose of this paper is two fold. First, to educate and enlighten the reader regarding the fundamental theory and techniques in the measurement process. Second, to discuss the analysis methodology of data analysis. Once complete, the latter provides indicators as to the condition of the connections and points to those that are in need to corrective action. IEEE standards are discussed (Refs 1, 2, 3, 4). The paper will also examine a number of misconceptions and pitfalls the author has seen in more that fifteen years experience working with stationary batteries in UPS and telecommunications applications.

Sodium Metal Chloride (SMC) batteries have now been commercially deployed and successfully operating in stationary backup applications for greater than five years. This paper will discuss the results of the testing of the quarter service life (5 years) capacity of field installed sodium metal chloride batteries in a standby application (MTSO). The FZSoNick 48TL200 Telecom series batteries will be the subject used in this document. The tests were conducted by the end user’s agent and data was collected by both a third-party service vendor and the manufacturer.

There are special requirements for the selection, installation, maintenance, and replacement of stationary batteries in operating nuclear plants due to regulatory commitments. Mistakes are sometimes made as a result of a lack of knowledge, a lack of familiarity with regulatory commitments, and improper training. Human performance plays an important role in understanding the risk to plant operation, safety, and consequences. This paper will discuss the regulatory and other requirements that are unique to the safe operation of nuclear plants.

The results of this work has clearly demonstrated the need to maintain VRLA batteries while demonstrating the capability of alternative test methods (Conductance, Impedance, Admittance and Resistance) to assess failed batteries (less than 80% of rated capacity). The purpose of this presentation is to help improve the understanding of battery problems and how the conductance measurement technique can be a useful tool in a maintenance practice. This talk will also provide an overview of basic battery installation, data collection and evaluation methods, which are currently used by many battery users. Finally, this talk will provide an overview of a process for managing the testing of existing battery systems already in service and new battery installations.

Internal ohmic measurements are used to determine the health of a battery by monitoring the internal resistance of its individual cells. Resistance, impedance, and conductance test equipment all measure some form of a cell's internal resistance. The term internal ohmic measurement is a generic term referring to a measurement ofa battery cell's internal resistance using anyone of three available technologies - conductance, impedance, or resistance.

Internal ohmic measurements are used to determine the health of a battery by monitoring the internal resistance of its individual cells. resistance, impedance, and conductance test equipment all measure some form of a cell's internal resistance. The term internal ohmic measurement is a generic term referring to a measurement of a battery cell's internal resistance, typically using any one of three available techniques - conductance, impedance, or resistance.

This presentation will discuss the basis of battery ratings as well as performance variations that are often observed in a typical discharge test. These variations are often the subject of disputes between the manufacturer and the end-user. The basis for these different interpretations is discussed as well as their implications on the health of the battery.

It has taken us decades to get to this point, but this generation is very environmentally conscious of its responsibilities to be good stewards of our planet, and understands that even small acts of conservation and thinking green can benefit both ourselves through profitability and everyone on the earth through carbon footprint thinking. By utilizing the actions described in the Special Recovery Process either in a proactive or a reactive method is as green as one can get, as it minimizes the carbon footprint of that specific battery.

John Henry was a legend of a man who could drive steel faster and better than anyone. John Henry won his legendary contest against a steam powered drill. Even Henry's emotional victory couldn't stop progress. We stand at a similar crossroads with automation of battery maintenance. This paper will clearly show the advantages of today's technology and why it just makes too much sense to resist.

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VRLA products have been installed in uncontrolled applications for many years, yet problems persist with short and variable product lives. This has lead to some networks deploying products based on different chemistries – NiCd, NiMH, lithium systems – to varying degrees of satisfaction. Large systems, particularly using large format VRLA products have predominately remained in climate controlled central offices, data centers or CEV’s. The choice to provide climate control for large battery systems appears to be driven by cost factors – historically the batteries are so short lived at even moderately high temperatures that replacement costs for the large systems are higher than the initial cost and utility costs for temperature management.

This paper describes how to write a meaningful lead-acid battery specification. Three sections that should be included are: 1. Definitions of the application - A description of environmental conditions, duty cycle, recharge method, and maintenance issues. 2. Customer preferences - Customer options based on preference, such as VLA vs. VRLA, single cell vs. multicell, single string vs. parallel. 3. Specified requirements - Items specified by the customer for a proper application, such as construction materials, design features, dimensions, and warranty. If followed, the battery proposals will match the application, can be compared to each other, and allow for a battery manufacturer to offer an improved option for a price premium. This allows the customer to truly evaluate and compare the various offerings to make the best selection possible.

VRLA batteries seem to have a multitude of problems leading to low capacity and short life, including dryout, plate growth, high float current, high hydrogen evolution and negative plate discharge, to name a few. This paper shows that all these are related and stem from a single source problem - the fundamental problem of VRLA batteries. That problem, which was not recognized by the industry for many years, was the use of slightly impure lead in the plates. Given that improving lead purity is not feasible, the best solution to the problem must fit the given circumstances of the current environment. How this problem can be corrected is explained, both for new production cells and for reclaiming older cells in service.

Installation and maintenance of stationary batteries was published. As presented in the paper preceding this, developing a training curriculum based on IEEE p1657 recommended practice for personnel qualifications for installation and maintenance of stationary batteries, a curriculum was prepared and offered to those interested in formal training on stationary batteries based on the guidelines in IEEE 1657.

Users are continuously bombarded by manufacturers and representatives extolling the virtues of their products and technologies.  Without extensive research, it can be difficult for a user purchasing a new or replacement battery to separate marketing hype from fact.  In simple terms, if the perfect battery existed, then we wouldn't have the number of battery companies, types and technologies that exist.  When we, as users, purchase a battery, it is our job is to find the best battery for the application with the minimum life cycle cost.

This paper provides a framework for the correct use of statistics as they relate to battery reliability, without resorting to complex equations. It examines series and parallel strings and shows how different battery chemistries provide varying results for statistical reliability.

No available description.

The paper describes the factors which have to be taken into account when carrying out life cycle costing and shows how this is applied in the software. Details and examples of the input required and the various outputs possible are given.

Description is not available.

After gaining dominance in the consumer electronics industry, lithium ion technology is slowly making inroads into other industries, such as reserve power systems (UPS), automobiles, etc. While its many advantages make lithium-ion technology highly desirable for use as a stationary storage solution, the chemistry brings with it a relatively higher safety risk when compared to the traditional workhorses - lead acid and nickel-based chemistries. A complete understanding of the risks associated with the lithium-ion technology aids in the design of a safe lithium-ion based backup power storage system. This paper introduces the safety aspects of the Li-ion cell and its typical failure modes. The paper ends with a discussion on energy-management system designs specifically for large format, lithium-ion based energy storage systems.

For many years, lead acid battery has been the backup power source in the telecommunications industry. It provides reliable backup energy during power outage. In the central office (CO) environment, the flooded lead acid battery has been the battery f chice because of its long life and reliability

AVESTOR's lithium-metal-polymer technology is an advanced battery system for stationary and automotive applications. Papers have been presented at Battcon in the past years in this technology, focusing on the basics of the electrochemistry, key benefits in applications and field test results. The present paper will describe the electrochemical system in more detail and define the subsystems that optimize the operation of the battery.

No available description.

With the acceleration of newer alternative energy sources, including photovoltaic, wind farms and passive nuclear designs, a focus on long-duration duty cycles for lead-acid batteries, up to 96 hours or longer, is now required.  Testing to IEEE 535 and IEC 61.427 demonstrate the ability of both VLA and VRLA designs using a tubular plate technology to satisfy those objectives. This paper will discuss the results of these tests to date.

This paper will show specific data observed on Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) battery installations in typical telecom locations. This will be primarily a summary of the information obtained through extensive field observations in multiple climate, cabinet design and operating conditions. These data observations and other published data suggest that capacity loss in VRLA batteries can occur at random intervals, which make scheduling maintenance difficult. This is an obvious source of concern if you don't know which sites may need maintenance and when to schedule it.

This presentation elaborates on primarily the lifetime of the battery taking into account the ageing effects of the 6 years in service. Capacity and internal resistance tests are matched to detailed models of the battery. Initial analysis of the results shows that a resistance increase in the range of 20% was found for the 2011 test as compared to the measurements made in the end of 2005.

This paper discusses the discovery and verification of this new phenomenon and the steps taken to recover the reduced capacity of field installed batteries that had been affected by this phenomenon.

A new spiral-wound VRLA cell will be presented that features low-aspect ratio grids and an open central cooling core for higher power and longer life. These cells are designed to be stacked and interconnected for high voltage applications. Design variables will be presented and performance data discussed for this Geometrically Optimized cell design.

Why are small, low cost battery sites generally a poor match for highly capable ohmic battery monitoring products? The answer isn’t just cost. This paper draws a contrast between the differing performance expectations and resource environments of two categories of stationary battery system user. It proposes some simple requirements for battery monitoring at cost-constrained sites with modest sized stationary battery systems and proposes a solution to providing battery health assessment at such sites.

This paper describes the low maintenance technology, its advantages in terms of maintenance compared to standard products and experimental data on water consumption at different temperatures and voltages.

End of life run time is the critical sizing factor for battery systems – especially for large data centers and other high-power applications. Current recommended practice is to oversize battery systems based on product watt-hour capacity. Battery design and testing practice, however, determine life based on reduction of run time at fixed energy discharges. Using run time as the basis for determining product sizing matches industry practice and provides for more efficient system sizing which can save users both space and cost.

An excellent way to ensure a user will have a long-lived standby battery system with minimal trouble along the way is to begin with a good installation. Reliability truly begins here. The trouble seems to be that in more than a few cases, installation crews and management personnel alike somehow, on more than an occasion or two, just seem to get it wrong.

In 2011, the USA harmonized its system of classifying hazardous substances with the European GHS system. The former MSDS is now known simply as a “Safety Data Sheet” (SDS). An IEEE working group is trying to develop a guideline for consistently identifying the hazardous materials in a battery SDS, to include information that is actually beneficial to everyone. This session describes some of the issues that they are grappling with.

This presentation will discuss the use of phase change material to improve the safety of lithium-ion batteries. Due to high energy density, lithium-ion cells can react violently if short-circuited, overcharged, or overheated. This safety risk (plus high initial cost) hinders adoption of lithium-ion in a number of industries. Cell and pack level methods are being developed to improve safety.

All attending this Conference recognize the need for batteries. However, few could assemble a cogent economic argument for the procurement and installation of (for example) a standby battery that would impress the corporate bean counter who wields final approval. The reason is that most organizations have strict procurement rules that include demonstration that such procurement must result in a combination of tangible revenues and savings whose collective value will exceed one or more return-on-investment (RoI) criteria; nearly always, consideration of intangible revenues and savings are summarily discounted (thrown out) from such analyses. Yet, a standby battery neither generates revenue nor saves labor - in fact, unless the battery is in the "out-of-sight, out-of-mind" category, it incurs labor and other costs just to maintain its condition.

IEEE battery sizing has its roots in a paper by E.A. Hoxie, published in 1954. The principles of that paper were adapted to a standards document for lead-acid batteries with IEEE Std 485, first published in 1978. A nickelcadmium version based on the same principles, IEEE Std 1115, followed in 1992. While these documents have stood the test of time, their origins from before the days of personal computing are clear. Even though most manufacturers have adapted these standards to computer sizing programs, there remain shortcomings for certain applications, such as those with numerous load steps, very long discharge times, or continuously variable loads. As new technologies such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) are being promoted for standby applications, it is worth considering whether it is time to adopt an alternative approach.

Changes in requirements to meet battery room compliance can be a challenge. Local authorities having jurisdictions often have varying requirements based on areas. This paper addresses the minimum requirements from Local, State and Federal requirements as well as historical trends in various areas where local AHJs have changed requirements. Based on data collected, additional requirements that AHJs may impose on facilities in various regions or cities will be presented. Updates in the building code as it relates to battery racks and seismic protection and the differences between UBC, IBC, IEEE and NEBS seismic requirements will also be presented.

A new type of fuel cell with metal hydride materials in the anode has intrinsic energy storage functionality and characteristics of a battery as well as a fuel cell, resulting in features such as instant start on the order of microseconds, improved ability to handle power transients, and good performance at ambient and low temperatures. These characteristics are particularly useful for UPS and emergency power applications

Large stationary battery plants are reliect upon to deliver emergency power to mission critical equipment ranging from a few seconds to many hours. The discharge rate and specific load at which they are discharged ultimately determines the actual current demanded of them. Power engineers and system designers strive to make the best material and economic choices to satisfy the needs of the system. From tlle maintenance perspective, maintaining reliable connection integrity should be considered paramount in operating a reliable battery plant. This paper will explore the fundamentals of establishing, tracking and maintaining connection integrity for large stationary battery plants and discuss the resulting effects of neglecting to address the requirements established by the industry.

This paper will discuss issues important to any manager responsible for maintenance of network power systems. First we will show the ability to identify deteriorating batteries in Outside Plant cabinets using midpoint conductance monitoring technique. Data obtained using a Midpoint Conductance Transducer (MCT-148) was'taken from common 48-volt telecommunications installations with various battery types as examples. Second, we win show it is possible to communicate the observed battery condition through common alarm system for remote status reporting. This strategic information can be used to help prioritize battery maintenance needs and to direct repair activity through the responsible NOC or NMA center.

There is a fundamental conflict between the IEEE sizing method and IEEE testing recommendations. For an application in which the end of useful battery life is set at 80% of rated capacity, the sizing method defines this point using 80% of published current for 100% of the time, while the testing procedure defmes it using 100% of the current for 80% of the time. The testing calculation method is flawed, in that it ignores changes in battery efficiency at different discharge times. While tests of long duration are relatively unaffected, this inconsistency can have pronounced effects on high-rate testing. Batteries can appear to fail prematurely, often after just a few years in service. This paper analyzes the problem and outlines what the IEEE battery standards committee is doing to address the issue.

This paper will highlight those environmental design features that must be taken into considerations when designing, constructing, and fitting out a UPS battery room that will result in more than just a physical room to house the strings of batteries.

Construction and demolition activities can generate potentially damaging levels of vibration to telecommunications equipment, computer or data center systems or utility control systems and other sensitive electronic systems and their stationary battery systems. Low frequency high amplitude mechanical energy sources like building implosions, pile drivers, wrecking balls, hydraulic rams, vibratory compactors, tampers and the like can cause a phalanx of electrical problems.

Description is not available.

This presentation covers the anatomy of a mobile power system and its versatility as a multi-purpose tool to address three applications. First, as a disaster recovery tool from catastrophic battery or equipment failure. Second, as a performance and diagnostic tool for battery maintenance and testing to assist with NERC Compliance. Third, as a redundant power system for existing station loads.

Utilities use stationary battery systems in substations for such purposes as stand-by power supply or as a power source for communication systems. With stringent limitations on space and increasing requirements for safety and reliability, utilities need to consider new battery chemistries to enable reliable, secure, space-effective, and cost-effective substation energy storage. Despite their higher initial costs, Manitoba Hydro recently began investigating the possibility of employing alternative, high-energy battery technologies for use in specialized applications where otherwise high installation costs would most likely make conventional VLA technologies less competitive. Two examples include using these new technologies in isolated communities, where operations are hampered by high installation, transportation, and maintenance costs and when their small footprints obviate the need to install expensive additional structures such as “Ready-to-Move” (RTM) trailers in particularly cramped substations. Such potential benefits prompted Manitoba Hydro in late 2016 to fund a two-year project investigating the suitability of both Sodium Nickel Chloride and Lithium-Ion batteries, their chargers, and their battery management systems (BMSs) for specific substation standby applications. The purpose of this project was to generate reliable characteristics of the aging process of Lithium-Ion and Sodium Nickel batteries for substation applications by recording and analyzing battery performance in their native substation applications and to determine whether they can be considered viable alternatives to conventional battery technologies. Manitoba Hydro purchased and tested a Lithium-Ion battery system from Saft and a Sodium-Nickel battery system from FIAMM for evaluation purposes.

IEEE recommends the full discharge test of the batteries at least once a year. Performance of each individual cell must be monitored and recorded. This requires installations (at least temporarily) of many sensing wires-not welcomed necessity. This presentation will explain how to eliminate those wires and conduct the data captured wirelessly.

The VRLA battery has a very high power density; provides flexibility of mounting orientation and location; eliminates electrolyte maintenance requirements and is relatively inexpensive. Consequently it has found application on traditional "open" racks in battery rooms as well as in cabinets utilized in data processing centers and at customer premise and remote telecommunications applications.

12-Volt Monobloc batteries have become very popular in recent years due to their high power density and compact form. With the advent of the front terminal design, this battery has become easy to install and support and its compact form allows it to be used in a wide variety of space constrained applications where larger 2-volt VRLA cells will not fit. The Monobloc VRLA battery, while not new, has become the preferred battery to be used in outside plant (OSP) applications due to the features just outlined. As is being discovered, the high temperatures of the outside plant environment are not conducive to the life of these batteries. This paper will review the life expectations of Monobloc VRLA batteries, explore the effects of high temperatures on these batteries and explain why high temperature can drastically shorten the life of VRLA batteries. Finally the paper will present a possible application of catalysts to 12-volt Monobloc batteries in order to mitigate the effects of high temperature.

Description is not available.

One critical problem in using batteries as a source of power for automobiles or for emergency backup systems is to know whether or not the battery will do its job. Is the state of health of the battery sufficient for the task demanded of it? Ohmic techniques, which measure changes in the impedance of a battery, have been implemented to monitor the battery's state of health.

This paper will examine how cell design parameters influence battery life. It will compare a high rate design to a general purpose design and examine the influence of two parameters (plate thickness and specific gravity) on battery life. I am limiting the discussion to these two topics because they are easily explained and understood and stay away from the quagmire of flooded versus VRLA, which as been the subject of a great many previous papers. In addition, these parameters affect VRLA and flooded alike.

This paper is intended to debunk myths and commonly held misconceptions about powering, grounding, and electrical protection for the telephone network, and identify several important criteria for doing business with telephone companies, niche applications for battery and related equipment.

Network Equipment Buildings Systems (NEBS) is a set of compliance standards criteria originally developed in the 1970’s for the telecommunications industry by Bell Labs. Today the NEBS standards are owned and maintained by Telcordia Technologies, (formerly Bell Communications Research – Bellcore) and published in a family of documents

If the North American Electric Reliability Corporation’s (NERC) plan for stationary battery support procedures is to prevent the challenges of the last decade, the suggested points of measurement and procedures are acceptable. However, if the proposed criteria can be broadened with an eye to the future, this search for standards and procedures can allow us to address past disasters and to capitalize on new opportunities.

Gives a brief history of NERC PRC-005-2 while examining the requirements as they relate to the dc power supply (primarily the station battery but with reference to the battery charger). A careful review of the wording of the standard along with the tables relating to specific maintenance provides practical guidance that ensures compliance while addressing true reliability. Presented by Chris Searles in the Utility Workshop “Electric Utility Battery and DC Power Systems - Watts The Scoop”.

Current practice for battery monitoring and maintenance in many nuclear plants in the US originated many years ago. This year, some significant changes to these practices are expected. All users should find something of interest in the discussion. This paper presents some of the concepts behind these changes. One concept deals with the priority placed on the corrective actions taken. Another deals with identifying and documenting the technical basis behind the values and limits assigned to the various parameters. The last concept explores the presentation of the data to effect the best responses from all involved.

This particular study is part of a larger research performed by VOLTiFiC which evaluated all available battery published data in the secondary battery segment (5-3220AH). The scope of data covers top 10 largest manufacturers of industrial batteries in North America and spans over 1,400 battery models. Nicad, VLA, and VRLA batteries with life designs of 2 - 20 years are evaluated. The majority of batteries are designed for stationary and standby applications with more than 75% advertised as 20 years life.

process. The largest markets for these power systems were in Telecommunications and the Utilities each with a specific set of standard requirements. Today in our interconnected world with its obsession for 24/7 connectivity, the requirement for standby power continues to grow, but how relevant are the products and practices that we know and trust in this new marketplace. This paper will examine the challenge of powering this next generation of integrated infrastructure. From solar powered data centers, to a 5G network with points of presence on every third available pole in some cities, do the traditional system configurations match the actual user requirements?

A new document, IEEE Std 1578 - IEEE Recommended Practice for Stationary Battery Electrolyte Spill Containment and Management, is expected to be published in 2007. The standard was created to meet the industry’s need for common or standard practices in the design of battery spill containment systems and the proper handling of unintentionally-released electrolyte. The document addresses various types of battery electrolytes and their associated hazards. Some new terms are introduced. A distinction is made between electrolyte spill “control” and spill “management.” Guidelines are provided for when a spill containment system is or is not appropriate. Several tables detail various spill mechanisms and their appropriate response, such as accidents in transportation & storage, installation & removal, maintenance, and general operation. Guidelines are provided with the pros and cons of various spill containment and spill management techniques. The document is intended as an authoritative guide for people who write and enforce Fire and Building Codes. This paper will give some background on the need for such a standard and its evolution from concept to standard.

Many factors can contribute to thermal runaway in VRLA batteries. Most common is a combination of high temperature and high float voltage. Through tests that induced thermal runaway, the effects of external and internal battery conditions could be determined. It became more evident that battery health and manufacturer played a large part in determining battery susceptibility to thermal runaway. This paper outlines the theory of thermal runaway, describes tests to induce thermal runaway, and suggests different methods of preventing it.

New regulations for the transport of lithium batteries are imminent. Is your company prepared to comply with the new rules? The US DOT is in the process of proposing rules that will significantly impact how your company ships lithium batteries. There is a significant concern on the part of international trade partners and industry on DOT's rulemaking initiative. The new rules were sparked by fires aboard aircraft and in other transport modes. This presentation discusses the history of past rules and why the DOT is publishing new rules. Learn about the final rule highlights and insight into their development, what to expect, and how to comply.

This paper examines the key development issues in designing a next generation lithium ion battery for distributed power applications in the telecommunications industry. We define distributed power as DC power plants in outdoor cabinet applications and smaller distributed DC power plant solution within central offices and satellite offices.

What is in store for stationary battery systems in the next edition of NFPA 70E? Learn the latest rules for dc arc flash protection and protective equipment in this supplementary presentation. (Slide presentation only)

This paper presents the results, corresponding analysis and observations from six capacity tests performed on the same battery at different constant discharge rates. Particular aspects related to the test parameters and additional measurements during the tests are discussed in order to provide guidance on how to review and analyze capacity test results. This illustrates the factors to consider when reviewing capacity test results and provides the reviewer broad criteria to read and make decisions from the result. Additionally, taking advantage of performing multiple tests on the same battery, the paper discusses the accuracy of the discharge tables by comparing the result of the capacity when using different discharge rates.

The NEC and NFPA 70 are the two regulations with greatest impact on stationary battery systems in North America. This paper looks at the most recent changes and forecasts what will be required in the next couple of years.

Historically, a true 20-year life vented lead acid (VLA) battery meant a thick positive plate, usually 0.25” or thicker. New materials and improved designs have resulted in a reduction of grid corrosion and associated positive plate growth, making it possible to achieve 20-year life with thinner plates. This paper will share results of life testing and field data to show 20 years of life can be achieved with these new designs.

After more than two decades of flawless service in demanding hybrid electric vehicle and consumer applications, NiMH battery technology offers many attractive attributes for telecom and other stationary applications. Yet, despite a demonstrated need for an advanced battery replacement for VRLA in challenging installations, major users are hesitant to adopt new battery technologies given past experience. Telcordia GR-3168-CORE "Generic Requirements for Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery Systems for Telecommunications Use", is a new standard that should be published before the opening session of Battcon 2012. This paper will examine the attributes of NiMH technology in light of the requirements outlined in GR-3168-CORE.

Many things contribute to early battery failures but most of them are reasonably easy to manage and control.  Learn what you can do to avoid murdering your battery.

Intermittent charging of VRLAs has been around for a long time, and sometimes there is no choice (the application can only charge intermittently: think for example, of vehicle engine-starting VRLAs, and standalone photovoltaic applications). Intermittent charging by choice has also been tried many times as a potential way to lengthen battery life. In most cases, this has failed miserably in its goal. This paper will examine the theory behind why intermittent charging should work in lengthening life if done properly, as well as show examples of how it has been done improperly, and why it didn’t work.

Switched Mode Rectifier/chargers (SMR’s) are the dominant method of charging stationary batteries in the telecom, data and many other standby power applications. The vast-majority of these SMR’s are forced air cooled. In North America, the exception is with industrial and utility companies who still favor older linear technologies, mainly Silicone Controlled Rectifiers (SCR’s). So why the reluctance of utility companies to use the lighter, more efficient and user friendly to adopt SMR’s? This presentation will explore the issues and argue the case for a second look at convection cooled SMR’s. The objective of this presentation is to be an educational thought changer. Topics discussed will include; history, reliability, efficiencies, maintenance, pros and cons, and costs.

The use of Ohmic measurements on lead acid stationary cells has been gaining popularity. EnerSys continues to actively evaluate our products’ response to the commercially available test equipment. Over the past 2 years, we have been actively working with two major equipment manufacturers to understand the technology, its application and how our customers can better use this information.

Over the past several years, there has been a significant effort to address energy storage system (ESS) safety especially those systems that utilize batteries as their source of energy. New technologies that do not have a long history of use in the built infrastructure are being utilized. Based on this, there is concern from regulators, fire marshals, electrical inspectors, building owners and other industry stakeholders with the safety of these systems and how to best integrate them into facilities. Development of product safety standards and product installation standards, and updating of building codes to address these concerns have been ongoing. This work has culminated in the publication of UL 9540 to evaluate the safety of energy storage systems as well as the ongoing development of the NFPA 855 standard for energy storage system installation; publication of Article 706 and updates to Article 480 of the NEC; updates to NFPA 1 and the ICC IFC fire codes, which are having an impact on the industry. Included in the fire codes and installation standard are exceptions that require large scale fire testing. UL 9540A is a new test method that UL developed to address this large-scale fire testing for energy storage systems. UL 1974 is a UL standard under development to address the process for determining the safety of used batteries for repurposing in applications such as energy storage. All of this work will have a direct impact on the industry, and it is important to know what to expect when trying to site these systems.

The use of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries has grown rapidly in a variety of fields, especially for long-term applications, which has made battery life prediction an important concern to be addressed. This paper presents the results of calendar aging tests performed on a small form factor Li-ion cell and the capacity degradation predictions that were made using the Arrhenius equation. The experiments were performed for one year at different temperatures and states of charge. The paper presents the results of the capacity degradation predictions during storage (calendar life) made by the Arrhenius equation and compares these predictions with actual capacity degradation observed over one year of testing. The paper also compares the variation in the capacity degradation predictions made using the Arrhenius equation for different test durations.

No available description.

This paper gives an overview of the 2007 revision of IEEE Std 937-2000 – IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation and Maintenance of Lead-Acid Batteries for Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, and its purpose. It discusses some of the basic differences between photovoltaic-system battery requirements and those of traditional stationary standby battery systems. Of particular interest to the audience is how a battery’s application and environment affect the recommended practices. Photovoltaic (PV) installations differ from industrial standby installations—such as telecommunications, uninterruptible power supplies, and utilities—in several key areas, including charge and discharge rates, depth of discharge, state of charge, and application temperature. Despite using the same lead-acid battery types, such conditions require changes in how the batteries should be installed and maintained. IEEE Std 937 can assist in maximizing battery life for those with atypical industrial applications that may have some of the same characteristics as a pure PV installation.

Monitoring systems are widely deployed as a maintenance practice by many industries today including, but not limited to, data centers, telecommunications, rail, and power utilities. Maintaining and managing the data collected by each of these automated monitoring systems can be challenging, especially as operators deploy hundreds of monitoring systems across widely dispersed locations. While there are various practices for data sampling frequency and reporting intervals, it is critical to not overlook the backup and data restoration elements for their monitoring systems. Without proper backup of critical information, such as baselining records, system configuration, reports, historical records, and fault history, it would be extremely difficult to restore a system back to its original state following a product failure of the monitoring system or a catastrophic event. This paper will explore which records need to be maintained and propose a best practice for record keeping and restoration management in support of electronic monitoring of battery systems. While the practices can be applied across multiple industries, this paper will highlight the best practices for remotely distributed systems such as those found in power utilities. Where it is beneficial, application will be made for co-located large deployments such as data center environments.

IEEE Standards 450 & 1188 call for periodic discharge tests to verify a battery can perform as manufactured. Since off-line discharge tests of individual strings using load banks are expensive and time-consuming, it is not usually performed in telecom.

Sodium-metal halide cells have advantages other than high energy density and long cyclic life: their compact, maintenance-free design allows sodium batteries to be packaged as field-replaceable modules in a parallel system. This fundamental change from traditional data center battery architecture enables near-100% operational availability. This paper explains the advantages, requirements, and some key cautions for operating a parallel battery system. Performance data and simulated battery outage experiments from a 557 volt, parallel three-battery system will also be presented.

This paper lists some of the myths of parallel battery strings, and summarizes the evidence against them.

This paper focuses on the well documented issues and concerns of deploying diesel generators, typically selected by end-users, for grid outages lasting eight hours or more at telecom and other critical network sites nationally, where uninterruptible power is a must. The paper also outlines how PEM fuel cell technology addresses these negative characteristics and will show that fuel cells are a reliable, cost effective, and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel generator technology at existing and new critical communication sites requiring extended runtime solutions.

At INTELEC 2004, the authors presented a limited analysis of field tests of 14,468 Round Cells. Failure and cell leakage rates were calculated and presented. For comparison purposes, some analysis was conducted on rectangular flooded and VRLA cells. Only cell leakage data was analyzed for the rectangular cells and failure rates were the only parameter presented for VRLA cells.

Do lithium-ion batteries have the performance to replace lead-acid batteries in electric vehicles, medical scooters, and other motive applications? Test results from standard automotive driving tests, such as the Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule (HFEDS), will be presented. Additionally, the economic and lifestyle advantages of using lithium-ion batteries in motive applications will be discussed.

With continued advances in battery technologies, batteries have become one of the leading solutions for not only portable power applications but also energy storage applications. Because of the high energy density in advanced batteries, one key safety goal is preventing the unintended release of stored energy. A catastrophic failure of a battery pack can occur if one or more cells in the battery pack undergo a thermal runaway event that results in a rapid release of the stored energy in the battery. Thermal runaway can lead to a release of flammable gases and heat, which can potentially result in fire and explosions. The design of effective thermal management systems or fire mitigation systems requires proper quantification of the thermal failure characteristics. This presentation will detail several research activities that have been developed to analyze and quantify thermal safety aspects of batteries, as well as to identify/quantify potential toxicology hazards. This process involves real-time gas analysis from lithium-ion battery failure events, as well as post-failure composition analysis and identification of gas combustion properties. The implications of this work toward designing for safety and integration into risk analyses will be discussed.

Describes how the application of Zinc Bromine (Zn-Br) flow batteries could effectively support remote telecom applications through extrapolation of performance metrics from example system test data to remote telecom applications.

When did you last perform a thorough physical condition and maintenance practices assessment for all your facilities? Are current industry and IEEE recommended practices followed? Are you complying with current and pending regulations? What are the skill sets of your battery maintenance crew, and have they changed? What processes, procedures and document retention are in place, and do they need updating? Do you have a good database of all your battery systems? What are the near and long term needs for replacements? Are those plans in place? This paper describes the reasons, methods, and potential results of performing a systematic battery system condition assessment. It also describes recommendations using lessons learned along the way!

Telecommunication facilities of all types from small cellular radio sites to microwave repeaters and larger Point-of-Presence (POP) and switching hubs, all require uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to ride through short duration interruptions. This function is supplemented by back up diesel generators for support in the event of long term outages. Conventionally, the UPS functionality has been provided through the use of lead acid batteries. In many off grid or weak grid installations, diesel generation is often the only source of power, sometimes supplemented by photovoltaic power or even wind turbines.

Maintenance personnel have become accustomed to working around battery terminals that are floating with respect to the earth grounded racks and switchgear. When a battery terminal connection or path to ground cannot be found by visibly tracing the cables from the battery to the switchgear and is not indicated on any diagram, a technician can become complacent during maintenance and testing. This paper will show that a path to ground through a UPS can result in extremely hazardous voltages being present between the battery terminals and the earth grounded racks and switchgear enclosures. This condition can result in electrical shocks to experienced battery technicians as well as possible hardware damage and improper indications from grounded battery test equipment that is connected to the battery terminals.

Without adequately considering what can go wrong, stringing a lot of lead-acid battery cells in series can cause problems. This paper addresses some of the things that might go wrong, and what can be done to avoid the pitfalls.

This paper describes planning of utility scale BESS (battery energy storage systems) based on real-life experiences of the German M5BAT research project. Different BESS applications are introduced and economic aspects, including BESS dimensioning, are described. Important aspects of technical planning, such as safety, control and integration of batteries, inverters and other equipment, such as ventilation, are discussed with respect to lead-acid, lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride batteries.

This paper explores some of the possibilities that this technology allows to enhance battery life and possibly reduce the overall cost of ownership.

This presentation will explore the many conditions and parameters where distributed low voltage dc makes solid engineering sense in the I.T. environment. With the escalating commodity cost of copper and the shrinking size of rectifiers and now even batteries the cost/benefit trade-off of bringing the dc power close to the load in a decentralized architecture often is a practical solution.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical explanation of the steps required for a typical sizing of batteries where a complex load profile is involved. For many people, this process can seem both intimidating and daunting. It is not. After a few simple considerations, you will be sizing batteries with speed and accuracy.

Power plant DC systems are essential for personnel safety and reliable shutdown of equipment, and regulations require these systems remain functional. Taking a battery out of service can compromise the reliability of the protection system. This presentation will describe the risks, and will present examples of field modifications implemented at power plants to ensure continuous reliability making battery maintenance and testing easier.

Black & Veatch Corporation developed a pre-conceptual design for a 2.5 MW, 10 MWh Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) demonstration unit at Boulder City, Nevada. The project was funded by the United States Department of Energy through a contract administrered by Sandia National Laboratories. The concept of a battery energy storage demonstration unit at Boulder City has been sponsored by NEVAREST Research, a non-profit organization located in Boulder City.

This paper will cover the types of sites and companies to which the Order does and does not apply. For those sites to which it does apply, there are a couple of differing requirements (dependent on site type) for the amount of backup required. In addition to mandates for minimum designed reserve power time, the order also requires “regular” maintenance and replacement of the batteries before they “deteriorate”. The paper will also cover the differing technologies that can be used to achieve the required backup, with the focus on batteries.

This paper outlines how we established traditional battery preventive maintenance and testing procedures at our 105 local battery sites. Additionally we have employed various "Conditional Monitoring" tools such as ohmic testing and remote battery monitoring units. The paper will outlive our use of a computer based maintenance management system (MMS) to track cost and equipment reliability of UPS and battery assets.

In these days of energy conservation, many applications seem to allow for oversizing of the battery charger. Oversizing is wasteful in the long run and results in a higher initial cost. The purpose of this presentation is to help ensure that utility battery chargers are properly sized.

After a battery system has been installed, it is vitally important to verify it is actually ready to be placed into final service. Connection tightness and integrity, proper cell polarity, and initial charge are just a few of the checks that need to be done to ensure the battery will deliver power when called upon. All too often, these and other pre-operational checks are never performed, leaving the end user wide open for potential failure of the very system that is expected to work when everything else fails. This paper will discuss typical commissioning requirements and pitfalls users need to avoid. Applicability is focused on both VLA and VRLA batteries.

Describes how single-cell/module replacements in series-connected strings can be tricky(a botched one, where only float current and not discharge current was taken into account, caused a famous fire that directly led to spill containment requirements). This is especially true when a single battery string is directly connected to a live load bus. This paper will explore the proper and safe methods of performing a single-cell changeout in many different situations: online or offline, paralleled with the load or not, with or without initial charge, etc.

This paper examines the criteria for new standards for the selection of spill containment systems for stationary lead acid batteries.

The subject of battery capacity testing is one of the most discussed at any meeting of battery users. The subject of this paper is not to address all aspects of capacity testing. Rather it is to look at the less commonly used method of capacity testing known as “Rate Adjusted Testing” and how the principles of this method can be applied if things go wrong during a traditional time adjusted capacity test.

This presentation will present a comprehensive high-level performance review of many thousands of VRLA batteries over the period 2006 to 2012. The relative performance, parameters and modelling of the battery data will be presented.

Novel metal hydride fuel cell (MHFC) technology has been scaled up and demonstrated in 320 W stacks and 500 W systems. This enables a 1500 W stack building block for UPS/emergency power applications. Stacks and the associated balance of plant can be integrated into prototype systems for telecom and other applications. Future power development activities are aimed at stacks achieving a specific power of 150 W/kg. The durability of the MHFC technology has been demonstrated by the operation of several multicell stacks in operation in excess of 7,000 hours. Metal hydride fuel cells offer a practical, low cost approach to power systems for UPS/emergency power applications. Charge storage characteristics of the metal hydride active material provide for special features including instant start, fuel hot swap capabilities, good low temperature performance, and inherent bridging and transient handling capabilities. The MHFC is also comprised of low cost components, including non-noble metal catalysts, carbon powders, nickel meshes, plastic binders, and plastic stack components. Fabrication and manufacturing of the MHFC involves conventional processing equipment similar to that used in commercial battery manufacturing. The MHFC offers an excellent opportunity for low cost fuel cell stacks addressing the serious cost issues facing the fuel cell industry.

This paper focuses on the NCX which uses Sintered positive and Plastic Bonded negative Electrode (S/PBE) technologies and a built in Central Watering System (CWS). Its flooded electrolyte design, only requires infrequent-periodic watering maintenance.

Description is not available.

Due to increasing application of fluctuating renewable energy sources, energy storage has become a key technology. A better adjustment of the capacity of the reserves to the changing demands is possible when decentralized storage devices are applied, which are scalable in terms of power output and the amount of energy stored. Redox flow technology could be an economic and promising possibility for utility-scale energy storage application.

Description is not available.

A recent Google search on VRLA batteries and conductance showed more than 180 scholarly works on the relation of VRLA performance to conductance or impedance measurements. The degree of study on this topic shows the level of interest of battery manufacturers, equipment manufacturers and battery users on the use of conductance equipment to determine battery performance. The basic claim of conductance and impedance equipment manufacturers is that changes that cause capacity loss, and ultimately, failure in the internal conditions of VRLA batteries can be measured using AC impedance methods. Tracking conductance or impedance therefore will detect capacity loss and failing cells.

No available description.

There are so many end users who are confused over the realities of how long their batteries last or do not last. Consultants do not have time to familiarise themselves with batteries, any more than they do about any of the many other products they are expected to knit together into viable and reliable systems for their clients. They need help. Reliable batteries are available. They just cost more than the unreliable ones, but people do not always understand this.

This paper will present, in interesting and pertinent detail, the value of remote monitoring and why human analysis is essential to the health maintenance of all critical battery systems.

In the early 1990's Chugach Electric (Chugach) fell prey to the allure of valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries. Widespread application of this battery technology has resulted in additional costs and lessons learned. Application of a VRLA battery at the Point MacKenzie Substation, a remote site, has resulted in high costs over the years and forced development of an effective solution. This paper presents a history of events and decisions made in selecting a replacement battery for the Point MacKenzie Substation.

It is well understood that premature capacity loss can be recovered through the replacement of the lost water, coupled with the installation of a catalyst. What is not so well understood is the durability of the recovery, nor the importance of the exact procedure itself to the end results.

Remote sites with poor or no grid power often rely only on generators for their main electrical energy source. For optimized economics, users are evaluating VRLA batteries as a primary source, in combination with a diesel generator and/or photovoltaics. This could generate savings in fuel consumption and maintenance costs. This paper will describe how to select the right VRLA battery and the parameters to optimize its charging.

This paper will provide a method for recovering capacity and extending the useful life of VRLA AGM batteries.

The designer of the battery monitoring system faces the difficult task of choosing the technology that will allow the extraction of information for the state of health of the battery while the battery is online. For the purpose of assessing the battery internal ohmic value, some battery monitoring manufacturers inject AC signals in to the battery strings, while others periodically apply a load pulse. Unfortunately, those signals are not always welcomed by the battery user or battery manufacturer.

Whether you are buying, designing, shipping, using or testing energy storage, there are regulations and certifications you should be aware of. This paper starts with a key point on cell level safety and transitions through battery management system design challenges. Select UL requirements and transportation topics are also covered.

Making large format power systems using traditional lithium-ion technology has been a great challenge when considering the concerns of toxicity and sensitivity to overcharge and thermal runaway associated with cobalt-based cathodes. This paper shows the results of safety testing, comparing phosphate-based cells and lithium-cobalt cells.

This paper provides background information on IEEE maintenance and testing recommendations for vented leadacid batteries, then goes on to discuss various ways in which substation battery costs may be reduced without compromising reliability. It examines possible alternatives to vented lead-acid, including VRLA and nickelcadmium. In particular, it points out the possible pitfalls of using VRLA batteries in substations.

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Due to a blackout of the utility’s electrical system, some UPS batteries of a oil refinery failed to feed their loads, even apparently having charge enough to supply their loads. Several tests were performed and the conclusions led to “Coup de Fouet” effect, an intrinsic phenomenon of lead acid batteries. This paper discusses the risks of this effect for critical systems in continuous processes and the actions taken to mitigate the problem, including some maintenance procedure recommendations for coexisting with it.

Each voltage conversion step increases complexity, space requirements and cost while decreasing reliability and efficiency. With a single voltage conversion strategy, we can significantly improve each of these characteristics. We calculate 6% efficiency improvement on the IT power circuit.

The key to deliver satisfactory complex electrical system is to clearly define the performance expected. The battery specification for a UPS system typically is heavy on manufacturing details and light on system performance requirements.

Upon new battery installations or replacement, end-users have set expectations in terms of runtime and reliability throughout the life of those batteries, Unfortunately, their expectations and the accompanying feeling of security can often be an illusion. This is due to the fact that battery sizing is, in large part, "smoke and mirrors: to the end-user. An anticipated 15 minute of runtime may really only be a devastating 5 minutes if certain battery sizing factors have not been considered.

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Describes the details of the safety features of the sodium metal chloride battery, including chemistry, product design and construction, and electronic control systems. Particular attention is given to conditions that can lead to events that have been known to cause catastrophic failures in battery systems, such as mechanical damage, temperature events, and mishandling or incorrect installation. Both internal and third party testing data will be referenced in this discussion.

Batteries based on sodium-metal halide chemistry have a long history in electric vehicle applications. Their high specific energy, power density, and long cyclic life have led to further development of the technology for critical stationary applications such as uninterruptible power systems (UPS) and telecom backup systems. The sodium battery’s capability for sustained high-power discharge and frequent cycling make it an ideal candidate to transform stationary battery applications from simple backup power to hybrid energy storage systems, allowing energy savings through off-peak grid recharging and renewable power integration.

System architecture for traditional lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries has evolved in particular ways to meet specific application requirements. As users start to consider new technologies such as lithium-ion there will be a natural tendency to maintain the same system architecture that has worked so well for them over the years. But is this the right decision? This paper addresses two applications - telecom OSP and utility substations - comparing existing battery solutions with Li-ion, and how the dc power system can be adapted and optimized to provide for successful application of Li-ion batteries. Recommendations are provided for the user to evaluate competing technologies, with particular reference to a soon-to-be published IEEE standards document.

Storage of electrical energy for use in electrical grids, especially in combination with renewable (wind, hydro, solar) energy production, is a growing application for batteries. Here batteries enable the customer to use electrical energy during time periods in which no direct electrical energy production is possible.

One of the significant changes in IEEE 450-2002 was to endorse the use of float current for monitoring the state of charge of vented lead-acid batteries. The position was recently accepted by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) technical branch during the approval of TSTF-500. However, in talking to members of the battery community outside of the 450 working group, it appears that the basis for this change is not clearly understood. The purpose of this paper is to examine why the working group endorsed float current monitoring as the primary method to determine state of charge.

During last summer’s IEEE Energy Storage and Stationery Battery Committee meeting, there was considerable interest in a presentation by Telcordia’s Service Line Director, Richard Kluge. A large part of his discussion centered around several major incidents in the telecommunications industry. Due to time constraints, Mr. Kluge covered only high-level details about any of the events. The lessons to be learned from those and similar incidents bear sharing because many older plants are still in service. The purpose of this paper is to cover several such incidents in greater technical detail and show ‘take-away’ learning concepts to prevent such failures going forward. Incidents covered include: a large battery fire, vibrating bus bars in a dc plant, countercell modification error, and EPO error.

In PRC-005 the three parameters of a DC system that are required to be checked and verified most frequently are the system voltage, electrolyte level (for VLA and NiCad) and for unintentional grounds. Checking for that ground fault is relatively simple and many battery chargers incorporate a ground fault detection system which will generate an alarm if a ground fault is detected. The problems start when you try to find where the ground fault exists within the DC power system. This paper will provide a quick overview of the most typical methods by which ground faults are identified and the potential impact that the methodology used has on finding the actual location of the fault. This will be followed by a review of the most often suggested methods by which the location of the fault can be identified, and an explanation as to the potential risks associated with many of these methods. An explanation of how a low frequency AC signal can be used to locate the ground fault and the limitation that might have with the use of microprocessor-based controls rather than relays. Case studies will be used to demonstrate the challenges that occur in trying to find that elusive fault.

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Accurate data collection is critical to establishing baselines and trending battery function variables. System reliability at a reasonable cost depends on the quality of this information. While manufacturer and industry standards are available for guidance, neither, due to frailties of manufacturing or component consistency, is able to provide the bead on service life estimation that benchmark data can provide. Delivery of critical service as well as routine maintenance functions can extend battery life and reliability when delivered in accordance with individual cell and string characteristics and requirements using data that refine manufacturer and industry-based statistics. These benefits are dependent on consistent and well-organized data that reveal unique performance profiles.

UL, IEEE, IEC, Telcordia, ATIS - the number and scope of safety and performance standards for stationary batteries can be overwhelming. Manufacturers must take standard criteria into consideration in the early design phase to ensure market compliance, but it can be difficult to understand which standards apply. This paper will make sense of the complex standards environment for stationary batteries with helpful illustrations and guides, and provide an early look at the new UL 9540: Safety Standard for Energy Storage Systems.

In stationary power battery strings, a single bad cell can cause failure. Cells have multiple modes of failure, each of which causes electrical instability within the cell. Many of these modes of failure will also have a thermal indication that accompanies them. These thermal indications can be detected with thermography and provide early warning signs of impending cell or circuit failures. This paper will explore the various modes of cell charging and power circuit failures and how those modes of failure could present thermally.

The Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) battery was introduced in Brazilian's Telecommunications Companies in 1992. Today around 70% of the telecom plant in Brazil uses VRLA batteries - the remaining once are flooded batteries - and the use of VRLA batteries will increase in the coming years.

This procedure supplements existing industry standards and is intended to provide the user with the minimum recommended acceptance/capacity test procedures for substation switchgear battery systems. This procedure describes only Off-line testing using a computer control test system and a temporary battery.

The battery charger is an important component in a dc auxiliary system, and there has been a push for a more compact design. In this paper, we will be comparing two solid state topologies: high frequency switch mode rectifiers and low frequency rectifiers (ferroresonant, mag-amp and silicon controlled rectifiers). Basic decision criteria will be reviewed, and we will look at the various environmental and maintenance requirements that have resulted in successful SMR installations.

Hybrid electrical energy systems, consisting of a renewable energy source (photovoltaics or wind turbine), a battery string, an inverter/battery charger, and an engine-generator (genset) present special problems to the system designer which, if improperly solved or ignored, can guarantee the early failure or performance degradation of battery strings used in these applications. Anyone of several potential problems ranging from variations in system operational energy requirements to the selection of a battery charging strategy can lead to ultimate system failure if a multitude of interrelated issues are not considered and resolved during the design and integration phase. This paper will enumerate the more common battery management problems associated with the design and integration of hybrid systems and present approaches to help recognize and eliminate or minimize the impact of system design problems in hybrid energy systems.

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This paper describes a step by step program of methods and procedures for maintaining the VRLA battery systems in the Local Exchange Carrier Central Office and Outside Plant Telecommunication Cabinet environments. Embracing these methods and procedures allows the user to obtain maintenance and test data indicating the current battery system condition and predictions for remaining battery service life.

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The U.S. NRC and Brookhaven National Laboratory completed a research project confirming that lead-acid batteries used in nuclear power plants can operate for extended periods of time in the event of a sustained loss of ac power. The preliminary results of how the batteries performed while supplying representative load profiles from nuclear power plants are discussed in this paper.

In 2010, the NRC and Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) began research to confirm if charging current is a suitable indicator of a fully charged condition for nuclear grade, vented lead-acid batteries. The project will verify the adequacy of recommendations in industry standards, namely "IEEE 450, Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications." This project will provide additional data on the use of charging current to assess the fully-charged condition of batteries. In conducting this study, BNL has cycled battery strings from three nuclear grade battery suppliers and measured both specific gravity and charging current over time, while also monitoring cell and ambient temperatures and cell conductance. This paper presents preliminary data and observations to date.

The U.S. NRC and Brookhaven National Laboratory completed a research project confirming that charging current is a suitable indicator of a fully-charged condition for nuclear grade vented lead-acid batteries as required by nuclear power plant Technical Specifications. Complete results from the testing program are available in NUREG/CR-7148, published in October 2012.

Last year, lithium battery recalls reached an unprecedented level, with mostly all the computer laptop manufacturers initiating significant programs to replace specific production runs of batteries. Even syndicated cartoons and Internet blogs poked fun at the safety problem. From the R&D days to last year’s recalls - the journey has been a bumpy ride for the end-user.

Describes the known effects of electrolyte specific gravity stratification on cell performance in renewable cycling applications. The details of an electrolyte air mixing system will be discussed and data presented to show how such a system can improve recharge efficiency, state of charge and overall life as a result of reduced sulfation and corrosion effects.

Stationary Lead Acid Batteries of the VRLA (valve regulated) type are the choice power backup storage batteries for telecommunication and data networks and for uninterruptible power supplies. They are produced in many designs and in many countries of the world.

NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, is a companion document to the National Electrical Code (NEC). The next edition will have, for the first time, requirements for dc and battery systems, but not necessarily to the satisfaction of battery technicians. This paper gives an overview of what changes have been proposed for dc arc flash, approach boundaries, and personal protective equipment for work on and around battery systems.

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This paper examines the real dollar costs involved in the maintenance programs and the risk/cost associated with the not maintaining VRLA batteries and discusses a proposal for an alternative approach to battery maintenance.

The intent of BATT CON is to bring users, battery manufacturers, test equipment manufacturers, test and maintenance service providers, and other related parties together to discuss and solve industry-wide problems. This presentation will focus on some specific problems that the author believes are important enough to address at this conference. It also urges users who are faced with these problems to take positive, decisive steps to eliminate these problems.

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IEEE Std1491™-2005, “Guide for Selection and Use of Battery Monitoring Equipment in Stationary Applications” was released at the end of 2005 after several years of development. IEEE Std. 1491™-2005 is sponsored by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Power Engineering Society’s Stationary Battery Committee.

This paper will present some history of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IEEE), how it is organized (Societies) and how the Stationary Battery Committee (StaBatt) fits in under the Power and Energy Society. It will briefly describe the differences between the types of documents - Guideline, Recommended Practice, and Standard. It will then lay out how the StaBatt is organized, how to participate, how to become a member, and how documents are created/updated. Finally, it will briefly go over the different documents - what they are, what they cover, and why they are needed.

Maintenance staffers responsible for measuring and recording battery operating parameters know they are supposed to be taken on a periodic basis. After years in the business, it is clear that little or nothing is frequently done with the readings post-inspection. Technicians think Engineering is analyzing the data. Or, is it that Engineering is supposed to be doing this? In reality, no one is doing anything with the data and, in the meantime, potential battery failure waits. When data is analyzed, it’s frequently misinterpreted. So, what are you doing with the data? This paper will discuss commonly measured battery parameters, what the data mean and good sources of guidance for what the readings should look like.

The Lithium-Metal-Polymer (LMP) energy pack is an advanced energy storage system developed by AVESTOR for stationary and automotive applications. This paper describes the technology and its benefits in stationary applications.

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Among other limiting factors, heat experienced by the battery has a direct effect on it's life. As always, heat is either the catalyst or cause of failure. Until the past year, the means to control and regulate the environmental temperature of a battery enclosure and ensure the reliability and life of standby battery power has included air conditioning, underground vaults, fans, passive systems, simple convection, and benign neglect.

All too often, stationary batteries are not charged correctly or adequately. This leads to a shortened battery life and can cause a premature and sometimes catastrophic battery failure. Battery charging is a complex issue. Consideration has to be given to many fixed and varying parameters, such as battery type and chemistry, battery application, and the environment in which the battery is being used. The intent of this paper is to educate battery users on the subject of battery charging and detail the proper methods of float (maintenance) charging, recharging, equalize (boost) charging, adjusting the charge for temperature excursions and limiting the charge current when necessary. There are many types of stationary batteries in use today and each chemistry has its own unique and often complex charging requirements but, for the purpose of this paper, the discussion is restricted to the lead-acid chemistry.

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Traditional battery technologies have been in use for decades, with only occasional incremental improvements. Now, battery users are increasingly accepting new technologies and the number of qualification tests underway is accelerating, as are actual deployments. The adoption of these new technologies is being fueled by business factors, such as shrinking maintenance budgets and reduced pools of skilled technicians, and also by application factors. These application factors may be changes in established load patterns as new equipment is introduced or they may be new types of applications, such as wireless micro-base stations for 3G data services or support for small distributed generators.

The use of instruments to directly or indirectly measure the internal resistance of the valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) cell has dramatically increased in recent years. There is a desire to establish technique to determine the state-of-health of the battery in an attempt to improve the reliability and service life of the battery system. The focus has been on the VRLA batteries, primarily because of the inability to visually inspect the internal element, and the difficulty in predicting potential indivdual cell failures.

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TACAS is a hybrid of mature energy-storage technologies that could replace lead-acid batteries for many customers. The paper will explain the potential and the limitations of TACAS and evaluate which applications will be commercially viable in the near future.

In this presentation, we introduce a new simulation tool that can provide valuable insight during the design phase of pack size systems. The model allows for rapid simulation and analyses of various thermal upset conditions in cells, modules and packs to assess the efficacy of the design of thermal management systems.

This work provides an overview of the consequences of thermal runaway events and mitigation strategies with respect to gases released during these events. The results of recent research on thermal runaway events are explained. In particular, vent gas composition, energy release, flammability, and other hazards are quantified. These results are compared to more common hazardous gases such as methane, hydrogen, and other combustible materials. This comparison can serve as a basis to adapt common safety practices used in other industries to protect people, the batteries, and the facilities that use these large battery systems.

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By measuring string voltage, temperature and float current, thermal runaway can be detected well before a disaster is imminent. If alarms are ignored, we propose a scheme to interrupt the charging of the battery while leaving the battery in a position to support the critical loads.

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This paper tells the story of some Thomas Edison nickel-iron batteries manufactured between 1924 and 1931 removed from a remote site in the Adirondack wilderness. We took possession of 80+ nickel-iron cells of two different AH sizes with three different model designations. These were 150 and 300 AH cells at the five hour rate. Some had electrolyte, some had none, and some had leaks. By following instructions in original Thomas Edison manuals, every cell recovered back into fully functional cells that perform above their published rated capacity when following IEEE1106. Just maybe Edison was right with his boast that these batteries would last 100 years.

PV plant reliability depends on energy storage reliability. Despite all the new storage technologies, lead-acid batteries remain the most used in off-grid PV systems because they have the best cost-benefit ratio. For remote PV plants, due to the time length process of sending spare parts besides the maintenance cost, it is essential having a way to predict the end-of-life (EoL) of batteries. There is a need for a non-invasive, simple and robust method. Non-invasive means that an algorithm must be capable of testing the battery without interrupting its continuous operation. It must be simple, minimizing complex devices or arrangements inside PV plant, and it must be robust to work in rough environment of remote field, prone to electrical noise and working without human presence during months. Another concern is cost for simultaneous monitoring of several batteries in PV plant. For predicting battery’s EoL, there are several algorithms. However, most of them are suited for laboratory use and others for vehicular use. The way they could be used for remote PV plants and for monitoring lots of batteries is not clear. The common approach for battery parameters estimation, e.g. State-of-Health (SoH) is based on equivalent circuit models that are mathematically represented by state space equations. Unlike lead-acid batteries used in backup systems that operate most of the time with 100% of State-of-Charge) (SoC), the SoC and SoH estimation in off-grid PV systems is a hard task, in reason of the uneven cycling regime and the rare full charge of the batteries.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has a long history of creating documents which provide the industry with best practices based on the consensus opinion of a broad spectrum of viewpoints. Within the Power and Energy Society of IEEE, there is an Energy Storage and Stationary Battery (ESSB) committee. The function of this committee is to create and maintain the Guides, Recommended Practices and some of the Standards that IEEE publishes regarding energy storage in stationary applications. ESSB has recognized that there is a need for documents guiding the industry to properly characterize and evaluate newer technologies for stationary applications. The “parent” document, IEEE 1679 Recommended Practice for the Characterization and Evaluation of Energy Storage Technologies in Stationary Applications was created first, and initially released in 2010. There are several “child” documents that address various technologies. Each “child” document covers a specific technology to provide information and guidance for one specific storage system. This paper will provide an overview of the IEEE 1679 family of documents and how the use of these “child” documents in conjunction with the “parent” document will provide guidance and information that will be helpful in evaluating and selecting an energy storage technology.

Battery field service technicians are faced with decisions on a daily basis that affect continued operational status of this vitally important subsystem. This paper discusses several popular “nuts and bolts” topics and related questions the author routinely is asked in training classes.

If Shakespeare were alive today and wrote a play about the life of a modem day cell technician or outside plant engineer named Hamlet, his lead character might have asked his most famous question this way - "To LVD or Not to LVD? . That is the question!" In today' s world, the ability to count on a dedicated power technician, whose specialty is to understand everything about the power plant and its functionality, rarely exists. Rather, the power room and the battery plant fall under the jurisdiction of a "universal technician" who must quickly learn the salient features and conditions of a variety of configurations, of which the power board and the batteries are in many cases a minor element in his overall view of the universe.

In a perfect world, every battery cell would be monitored continuously for every conceivable parameter mentioned in IEEE Standard 1491 (Guide to Battery Monitoring). Few failures would be observed because the user would be pre-warned of almost every potential failure so that they could take action before an event happened. However, the world is not perfect, and while reliability is very important, it must be weighed against cost. I work for a large RBOC (Regional Bell Operating Company), nad have been involved in the decisions of that company as to whether to monitor batteries, what to monitor, and how to monitor it. This paper will give a synopsis of the thinking that led to those decisions in a world governed by budgets (a parameters to monitor, and what equipment to use all have economic values.

VRLA batteries have been developed and used for about 30 years in backup applications. They have shown several advantages compared to flooded lead acid batteries, but limitations have also been observed concerning their reliability and service life. This has driven Electricite de France (EDF) to develop an improved storage architecture, with an integrated, new method of maintaining the charge for VRLA batteries.

Advances in both battery technology and power conversion technology and changes in backup requirements have reached a new critical junction that is fundamentally changing telecommunications power design. This paper looks at some of the ways that battery technology and power system architectures are interdependent and how the advances in both combine to create new capital expense (CapEX) and OpEX advantages. These advances will be examined with a view toward a better understanding of new opportunities and future trends in power architectures and battery deployments. (Backup Paper).

When tracing ground faults in DC systems it is necessary for the system to remain reliable. Due to their criticality, the troubleshooting process needs to be performed online and without disturbing the system. Ground Fault tracing has proven to be a highly effective method to locate faults, but its usage entails some obstacles that if handled properly will allow a successful and quick tracing and location of the faults. Introducing a unique signal into a DC system allows you to have a unique traceable response but it can be affected by various system characteristics. Depending on the type of tracing signal and its frequency, the system noise can have various impacts on those signals. The usage of AC or pulsing signals, implies the appearance of stray currents due to the capacitance of the wiring of the dc distribution system. Some circuits may show higher currents than others and if not properly identified and handled in the measurement process they can be considered as a faulted circuit and the user ends up chasing a phantom fault. Furthermore, the magnitudes of the applied signal, be it AC or pulse, need to be carefully handled to avoid excessive current circulation that may cause related problems that can lead to a breaker trip.

Battery service technicians, be they in-house or in the employ of a commercial service operation, are required to follow established safety rules. Safety is of paramount importance when servicing a stationary battery, largely due to the fact the battery is always energized. There is no option. Most routine maintenance tasks are carried out with a battery connected to its charging source, operating on float charge. Such tasks typically include the use of portable, handheld test equipment and tools to measure and record operating parameters like cell voltage, specific gravity, inter-cell connection resistance, internal ohmic values, etc. To accomplish such tasks, a technician must be in relative proximity to the battery. Use of appropriate PPE (personal protective equipment) is essential to reduce the likelihood of an accident. Proper tools are required. Training is required based on the tasks a technician is expected to undertake. To further reduce the possibility of a mishap, proper safety techniques are required. The objective of this paper is to raise awareness of those involved in developing training and procedures and, of course for those performing the maintenance. Several common maintenance tasks will be presented with specific discussion relating to process and technique with emphasis on enhancing safety and effectiveness to make the point. While the paper does not cover all possible tasks and scenarios, it is hoped the ones covered will get readers thinking about how maintenance is being performed where they work and what can be done to improve safety, thus, a reduction in accidents.

There are many ultra low maintenance nickel cadmium batteries on the market, from standard vented flooded types to those using catalyst recombination technology, vented partial internal recombination, and valve regulated partial internal recombination. With a trend toward providing the “maintenance free” solution, how do these technologies differ from one another and from VRLA technology? This paper discusses basic design concepts of these technologies and explores the advantages and disadvantages of the ultra low maintenance batteries.

This paper discusses recent developments in ultracapacitor design and capabilities and explores the growing potential of ultracapacitors in traditional energy storage applications. There is increasing interest in exploring battery / ultracapacitor hybrid designs as an alternative to current approaches involving batteries coupled with flywheels, fuel cells, and generator sets. The paper presents data that demonstrates the ability of an ultracapacitor to deliver high-rate, short duration current to complement traditional lead acid battery performance, providing a best of both worlds hybrid solution aimed at reducing battery cost, footprint, and maintenance, while increasing overall system performance and reliability.

In keeping with the BATTCON97 theme of having open honest discussion that we can all benefit from, this presentation is a list of questions that we hope can be answered at this conference. The following is a compilation of questions that we have received from participants of this conference, as well as friends and colleagues in this industry. To be honest about it, some of the questions are our own. These questions are not meant to put anyone on the spot, or pick on anyone in particular. They are aimed at just about every group represented here. We believe the answers to these questions, if not already covered in one of the previous sessions, will stimulate some interesting discussions. We hope that the answers will allow us to understand each other a little better and improve our working relationships.

Battery design life is predicated on conditions that may be generic to the application. Integrated in some fashion is the warranty against manufacturing defects. The actual installation of batteries can have a profound effect on actual service life. Many European manufacturers offer a different warranty for the same battery sold in the US. In the meantime, certain standards, including IEEE 535, mandate battery evaluation procedures that provide a predictable expected life from the batteries. This paper will address each of these aspects, provide an understanding of the differences between the four life attributes, and look at differentiating warranties from both design life and service life.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has a long history of creating documents which provide the industry with best practices based on the consensus opinion of a broad spectrum of viewpoints. Within the Power and Energy Society of IEEE, there is an Energy Storage and Stationary Battery (ESSB) committee. The function of this committee is to create and maintain the Guides, Recommended Practices and some of the Standards that IEEE publishes regarding energy storage in stationary applications. ESSB has recognized that there is a need for documents guiding the industry to properly characterize and evaluate newer technologies for stationary applications. The “parent” document, IEEE 1679 Recommended Practice for the Characterization and Evaluation of Energy Storage Technologies in Stationary Applications was created first, and initially released in 2010. There are several “child” documents that address various technologies. Each “child” document covers a specific technology to provide information and guidance for one specific storage system. This paper will provide an overview of the IEEE 1679 family of documents and how the use of these “child” documents in conjunction with the “parent” document will provide guidance and information that will be helpful in evaluating and selecting an energy storage technology.

To the average person, lithium-ion technology, at least until the last year or so, was represented by the black-box-like batteries in high-end consumer devices such as laptop computers. Mobile phone batteries use similar chemistry, although in that case the batteries are often lithium-polymer types that are frequently described as if they constitute an entirely different technology. The mystique of lithium-ion batteries even seems to extend to the industry lexicon, with cognoscenti talking about cathode and anode materials—words familiar from physics or chemistry courses at school but rarely used in the world of lead-acid batteries.

Though Sodium Nickel Chloride batteries have now been commercially deployed and safely operating in stationary backup and ESS applications for the last decade. Recent changes in fire codes, namely NFPA 855, has driven energy storage device manufacturers to preform large scale fire testing to the UL 9540A test method in order to provide data to the AHJ’s to gain exemptions to the new requirements for such things as maximum rated energy in a control area or spacing and clearance of their products. This paper will present the results of the testing from a manufacturers perspective, highlighting challenges and successes relative to compliance to and/or obtaining exemptions to the NFPA 855.

The majority of Valve-Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries on the market or being manufactured today are AGM batteries. The electrolyte is immobilized by a micro-fibre glass mat. Their usable life usually runs between 5 and 10 years, with a cycle life rating between 200 and 500 cycles (80% DOD). Their life is restricted by the increase of internal resistance and, consequently, the drop of the capacity. Often, a part of the battery fails by sulphation of the negative plate.

This procedure supplements existing industry standards and is intended to provide the user with the minimum recommended acceptance/capacity test procedures for Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) batteries. Additionally, this procedure describes two different methods ofioading a UPS battery during an acceptance/capacity test. Both methods are technically correct and will be discussed later in this procedure. It is the user's responsibility to determine which test method is the most technically correct for their respective UPS installation.

Building codes affecting Seismic Battery Racks have changed significantly over the past 10 years in the United States. We will look at the change from the UBC code to the IBC code, defines what is required for specifying IBC racks and the changes that IBC and other codes, standards, and agency requirements have had on traditional battery rack design.

The battery industry is still struggling to educate the user/purchaser of the capabilities and limitations of the various grades of VRLA batteries. By defmition, an Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is supposed to provide a constant source of power, and the battery that is purchased with the unit is expected to be infallible. We know that this is not the case, and users are now realizing that the battery is critical, and frequently the weak link, in assuring continuous power to their critical loads. They frequently depend entirely on the UPS manufacturer to furnish the proper battery to live up to the claim that their system is a constant source of power. Usually, the only stated requirement to the manufacturer is for a battery that lasts "X" minutes under full load, and that it be "Maintenance Free". In the highly competitive UPS market, the common method of winning the bid for the system is to offer the cheapest battery available that meets the battery specification. Consequently, with a very weak battery specification, most of the UPS systems receive a low grade of battery that frequently does not meet expectations.

This paper’s intent is to educate the end user and provide recommendations on how to properly size, install, commission, test, and maintain your UPS with a battery system.

For several years starting around 2010, deployment of lithium-ion-based energy storage systems proceeded largely unencumbered by codes and standards. More recently, however, codes and standards bodies have been racing to catch up with deployments. These developments have taken on increased urgency in light of numerous incidents, including battery fires in South Korea and a recent explosion at a facility in Arizona that left firefighters injured. We have seen several standards issued and updated by Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and more stringent storage-related requirements built into US fire codes. The fire-code requirements have now been consolidated in NFPA 855, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems, with the intent of making compliance with that standard mandatory in future releases of the fire codes. At the same time as the national picture is becoming clearer, we are starting to see the appearance of even more restrictive state-level requirements, as demonstrated by recent modifications to the New York State Fire Code. This paper provides an overview of the development of these codes and standards, and the challenges faced by manufacturers having to address this rapidly evolving situation. These challenges are exacerbated by recent trends to products with significantly higher energy density. The influence of these documents on system design is discussed, particularly in relation to fire-suppression systems (FSS).

This presentation covers the limitations of traditional communications facility infrastructure designs and the benefits of the new systems available. The application of SMC batteries and Direct Distribution Power Systems will be displayed.

American Electric Power maintains more than 3,000 stations in 11 states. We rely upon over 3,400 stationary battery systems to provide switching and back-up power for these stations. Of these batteries, over 60% are NERC applicable. With the introduction of DC supply testing requirements in PRC-005, AEP responded by developing a uniform testing procedure. The new procedure was pushed out to all areas, including a detailed training document. To guard against missing potential problems, AEP also instituted a layered approach in analyzing test results. The man in the field (servicer), at the station, is the first layer of defense. He can check his test results before he leaves the station (or mid-test) and retest as needed to verify bad readings. The second layer is an internally created program that analyzes each test result and flags areas of concern. The final layer is the local field engineer who reviews the results, looks for deficiencies, analyzes trends, and makes the final decision on any problems. A field engineer may analyze test results for multiple servicers, having as few as a couple dozen to over 200 batteries, depending upon the area.

Battery Monitoring Systems use an array of techniques to evaluate system and cell health; however, all are dependent on the accuracy of the electrical, thermal and mechanical sensors employed. This is particularly true when measuring DC parameters across a wide dynamic range. This session will enable the engineer to examine electrical transducer accuracy across a variety of common conditions, with special emphasis on the impact of residual effects, and provide a visual tool to evaluate and understand actual performance under those conditions.

The purpose of this paper is to identify many common installation errors and negligent practices that could put a company in poor standing with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and various state or local Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs). Bear in mind that codes carry the force of law and then there could be criminal penalties in addition to fines. Interestingly, even near-miss accidents where there was no injury have sometimes come to the attention (and scrutiny) of OSHA and their investigations can wreak havoc with your operation. When investigators arrive at a facility, their mission is a very painstaking view of your workplace with regards to all applicable regulations and not just the incident that brought them there. Based on their findings, AHJ representatives may demand the facility shutdown until all safety discrepancies have been corrected to their satisfactio

This presentation discusses the use of Ohmic measurements for the determination of battery state of health and a new concept will be presented surrounding a method that can address the need for consistent metallic contact points to enhance the accuracy of Ohmic measurements.

The dual-use concept presented in this paper offers an additional revenue for UPS systems. The essential parameters that have to be considered in this operation strategy can be analyzed via a 3D battery model, allowing new and profitable utilization of existing capacities.

Describes how to build a bridge between the battery and ventilation system designers. As such, it provides information on battery performance characteristics that are influenced by the HVAC design with a focus on operating temperature control. It then provides information on battery performance during various operating modes for use by the ventilation system designer. The critical factors covered are battery heat generation and gassing (both hydrogen and toxic gasses).

NiZn batteries are a high voltage aqueous battery system providing an optimal combination of high power and energy while maintaining the highest safety of any battery chemistry available. NiZn is a non-flammable, rechargeable chemistry with an energy density of more than twice that of valve regulated Lead-Acid batteries. It has high-rate capability, can achieve more than 600 deep cycles, and can sit on float charge for extended periods. NiZn has a value proposition that reduces the footprint, weight, and lifecycle costs over Lead-Acid. NiZn also provides a cost improvement over Lithium-Ion by reducing the complexity of the battery management systems (BMS) and controls required, by eliminating the safety concerns associated with thermal runaway. The following are highlights of the NiZn chemistry for data center applications: • NiZn offers better high temperature performance, resulting in reductions of HVAC requirements and costs, thereby increasing the energy efficiency of data centers. • NiZn offers a much lower cost solution throughout the battery life over existing Lead-Acid and Lithium-Ion systems. • NiZn is a drop-in replacement for Lead-Acid utilizing the same racks, cabinets, cabling, inverters, and controls. • NiZn is safe, non-combustible, non-explosive, RoHS compliant and can be fully recycled back into battery grade materials using a cold recycling, energy efficient process. • NiZn offers the highest internal rate of return with a combination of performance, reliability, and value. • The need for a complex BMS is eliminated due to the inherent safety of the NiZn chemistry. • NiZn offers greater energy density and specific energy vs. Lead-Acid, thus reducing handling and other service-related costs, along with increasing building whitespace.

With the introduction of the ultracapacitor, a new possible storage system of electrical energy was introduced. Given the differences in behavior between batteries and ultracaps, investigations had to be performed in order to capture possible advantages when both are directly combined into one common energy storage system.

This paper describes a success story of ten years in service of 40 strings of VRLA boosted batteries. The paper outlines the methods used to bring the batteries back to life, install them, and monitor them at 20 network sites. The status of the battery strings after ten years in service (14 years after manufacture date) will be reported.

In this study, a collection of different experiments on VRLA/AGM monoblocs has led to a variety of data with favorable indications and conclusions about design factors and cycle performance of VRLA batteries. The active mass/Ah-ratio as well as the apparent mass density of the positive active mass has been found to be the overriding design factor. Knowledge of the different influences in the discharge regime helps additionally to dimension the battery according to the cyclic requirements.

No available description.

The development of green transport and electrification will cause battery wave tsunami and the demands for raw battery materials are expected to increase exponentially in the next decades, which indicates the shortage of battery critical raw materials like Ni, Co, Mn, Li and environmental impact. Thus at the end of batteries life, they should be repurposed, remanufactured or recycled, feeding valuable materials back into the economy to form the close loop which is proposed in Green Deal. In past years, Some Chinese companies have already begun to recycle the first batch of spent power batteries based on existed process. Even though, it’s essential to develop a more efficient, cost-effective and eco-friendly solution with the growing financial and environmental requirements. Presentation of Dr. Xiao Lin will show current East Asia battery recycling market and bring to light on novel research and its industrial application of revolutionary regeneration solution and equipment for battery recycling from dismantling to separation and purification. At least 95% active materials can be recovered as cathode materials to achieve real circular economy after this intelligent extreme short process, while reducing at least 25% carbon emission during battery life circle to minimizing environmental impact of batteries.

Every time you turn around, your company is trying to save money--often at great cost! Those new battery racks are junk, and there's no way a UPS without an isolation transformer is any kind of bargain. But, try telling them that. It's like they can't hear you. Maybe it's because you don't speak their language. And sometimes, you must show instead of just tell. We'll look at how to do just that.

Various methods of continuous, individual cell voltage balancing of lead-acid batteries have been used in the recent past, and are still currently promoted by some. Although done with good intentions, the effects of this process can have unintended consequences. This paper intends to identify and summarize these unintended effects, which can include reducing the reliability and the service life of the battery.

Stationary Battery Systems provide the control and reserve power for modern life as we know it. These systems provide control power for switchgear and automated controls, the power for field flashing of generators, emergency lube oil and seal oil pumps and other critical motors, the reserve power for UPS systems, and the operating power for critical communication systems. In short, these battery systems make modern life possible, and they surround us. Stationary Battery Systems present unique maintenance hazards due to the availability of high currents, lethal voltages, flammable/explosive gas, and corrosive chemicals. Additionally, recent research suggests that 500VDC battery systems may pose more significant arc flash hazards than currently recognized.

The advantages and disadvantage of various gas sensing technologies aid in the selection of a gas sensor or alarm system for an application. Knowing the technology behind a gas sensor will help in the selection, installation, and operation throughout the life of the system.

This paper explains how it is possible to recover 2 volt VRLA cells that have been off charge for almost four years back into usable cells and lists the needed steps to do it. This method does not endorse neglecting your batteries, but does demonstrate that 2 volt VRLA cells are much more forgiving and robust then their vented counterparts.

Battery users worldwide benefit from IEEE battery standards. While other standards organizations produce battery documents that concentrate on product specification and qualification, the IEEE documents are far more user-oriented. The aim of these standards is to help the user in all aspects concerning stationary batteries, from sizing, through installation design and installation, maintenance and testing, to replacement, This paper gives tha Battcon audience an overview of these documents and highlights some of the newer projects being pursued.

Technological advancements and rapidly increasing manufacturing capacities with reduced costs has resulted in a steep increase in popularity of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries for grid storage applications. The current market for grid-scale battery storage both in the US and globally is dominated by Li-ion chemistries. Since the widespread adoption of Li-ion batteries for grid storage applications, several incidents have occurred raising safety concerns. For grid energy storage applications, owing to the large scale of batteries, system complexity and use conditions, battery safety is of utmost importance. Single cell field failures, particularly in large battery systems require consideration of how these failures can impact neighboring cells and subsequently the entire system. To prevent this cascading effect, battery systems must be well designed with redundant protection features. In the absence of a commonly accepted methodology to evaluate propagation resistance in a large battery system, a UL 1973 Internal Fire Task Group was set up in 2016. This has resulted in the induction of the ‘Tolerance to internal cell failure’ tests in Edition 2 of UL 1973-2018 (Standard for Batteries for Use in Stationary, Vehicle Auxiliary Power and Light Electric Rail (LER) Applications). The intent of this test is to evaluate system tolerance by simulating thermal runaway in a single cell using techniques that emulate real-life occurrences in the field as closely as possible.

When a UPS battery reaches 80% of its capacity, industry standards say it’s no longer reliable and must be replaced. But when a battery string experiences thermal runaway, there is a potential for fire. There is a process that not only eliminates thermal runaway, but rejuvenates a battery back to a reliable condition that can save a company millions of dollars in cost and downtime.

The purpose of this paper is to identify many common installation errors and negligent practices that could put a company in poor standing with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and various state or local Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs). Bear in mind that codes carry the force of law and then there could be criminal penalties in addition to fines. Interestingly, even near-miss accidents where there was no injury have sometimes come to the attention (and scrutiny) of OSHA and their investigations can wreak havoc with your operation. When investigators arrive at a facility, their mission is a very painstaking view of your workplace with regards to all applicable regulations and not just the incident that brought them there. Based on their findings, AHJ representatives may demand the facility shutdown until all safety discrepancies have been corrected to their satisfaction.

Though Sodium Nickel Chloride batteries have now been commercially deployed and safely operating in stationary backup and ESS applications for the last decade. Recent changes in fire codes, namely NFPA 855, has driven energy storage device manufacturers to preform large scale fire testing to the UL 9540A test method in order to provide data to the AHJ’s to gain exemptions to the new requirements for such things as maximum rated energy in a control area or spacing and clearance of their products. This paper will present the results of the testing from a manufacturers perspective, highlighting challenges and successes relative to compliance to and/or obtaining exemptions to the NFPA 855.

This paper is written for battery service providers and end users who test and maintain their own batteries. I wrote this paper as a follow-on to the paper presented by Rick Tressler at last year's Battcon – Capacity and Discharge Testing. There are some very important battery and power plant considerations that need to be looked at and understood when recharging your batteries after a discharge event or test. Battery strings represent a large capital investment for a business and they are counting on them to provide them with emergency power when needed. Properly maintaining them is essential for optimum performance and life. The examples I use are primarily VRLA batteries installed in a telecom environment but the same considerations need to be looked at in UPS and flooded battery installations. This paper will cover the effects of improperly recharging batteries after a discharge test or event and the other factors you must take into account when recharging your batteries. Always consult with the battery manufacturer if you are unsure of the battery recharge rates.

Many presentations have been made over the last five years dealing with the correlation between a capacity of a Lead Acid Cell and its internal resistance. Until now these technical papers have been presented either from a battery manufacturers or from a battery service company's view. This presentation will illustrate internal resistance readings and trends from raw data obtained in the field to substantiate the effectiveness of AirTouch Cellular's maintenance program as used by its service technicians.

American Electric Power maintains more than 3,000 stations in 11 states. We rely upon over 3,400 stationary battery systems to provide switching and back-up power for these stations. Of these batteries, over 60% are NERC applicable. With the introduction of DC supply testing requirements in PRC-005, AEP responded by developing a uniform testing procedure. The new procedure was pushed out to all areas, including a detailed training document. To guard against missing potential problems, AEP also instituted a layered approach in analyzing test results. The man in the field (servicer), at the station, is the first layer of defense. He can check his test results before he leaves the station (or mid-test) and retest as needed to verify bad readings. The second layer is an internally created program that analyzes each test result and flags areas of concern. The final layer is the local field engineer who reviews the results, looks for deficiencies, analyzes trends, and makes the final decision on any problems. A field engineer may analyze test results for multiple servicers, having as few as a couple dozen to over 200 batteries, depending upon the area.

IEEE 946 is a longstanding document that has been in circulation for many years, although it was recently revised with some significant changes. IEEE 1818 was published about five years ago, and IEEE 2405 is a newly released document based on a predecessor NEMA PE5 Standard. Each of these documents provides information and guidance for designing and specifying battery chargers for use in utility standby applications. While there are many consistencies, there are also many differences between the documents which can cause confusion for the end user.

The pursuit of NetZero targets has become a top priority for many countries around the world, and significant efforts are underway to decarbonize the transportation sector and energy generation. This study presents an overview of stationary storage technologies and assesses their feasibility as storage in extreme environments. A series of experimental results are shown to assess the performance of certain Li-ion chemistries under cold conditions as well as to discuss the impact of long-term cold storage on battery performance. The study further explores the potential for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technologies to be used as stationary storage options. The analysis demonstrates that V2G technology can effectively harness the potential of EVs to store and supply energy to the grid and can provide a reliable and cost-effective solution for stationary storage.

The topic of this paper is the strategic value of a North American vertically-integrated supply chain and manufacturing for vanadium redox flow batteries (“VRFB”), particularly with respect to the greatest cost item in their bill of materials, vanadium electrolyte. Vanadium electrolyte typically constitutes 30% to 40% of the cost for VRFB systems, for example $150/kWh of a $500/kWh installed system cost for a 10MW VRFB with 4-hour discharge duration.

Reports, studies, and analysis demonstrating the huge growth projections for the U.S. Energy Storage Battery sector have become commonplace. Not long ago, The Wall Street Journal posted the main headline “Batteries Will Power the World” (Feb 5, 2021), a clear sign that Energy Storage has gone mainstream in the public view. But along with these opportunities come some significant challenges for companies who are actively engaged or thinking about entering this rapidly growing market. This paper discusses the first-hand observations and lessons learned from one firm who moved beyond traditional DC Power systems solutions into larger scale Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) projects and attempts to identify and discuss core issues and risks to success and profitability in this sector. Having a better understanding of these primary issues and factors that should be considered and addressed when delivering Energy Storage Battery Solutions will have a significant impact on the organizational decision to enter this market and mitigate many of the risks involved in making that decision.

But along with these opportunities come some significant challenges for companies who are actively engaged or thinking about entering this rapidly growing market. This paper discusses the first-hand observations and lessons learned from one firm who moved beyond traditional DC Power systems solutions into larger scale Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) projects and attempts to identify and discuss core issues and risks to success and profitability in this sector.

Having a better understanding of these primary issues and factors that should be considered and addressed when delivering Energy Storage Battery Solutions will have a significant impact on the organizational decision to enter this market and mitigate many of the risks involved in making that decision.

With the increasing investments in grid scale energy storage research and development, particularly for Li-ion batteries, there is an urgent need to understand and address issues related to hazards and risks associated with these battery systems. Due to the size and complexity of the battery systems, the hazards associated with these systems are related not just to cell-level defects, but also to other electrical components, controls, environmental factors, and system-level failures. To ensure a safe and smooth integration of battery systems with the grid, it is also important to understand the relevant industry regulations and standards during the development, installation, and maintenance of these systems. This paper presents an overview of the safety and risk considerations for a typical grid-scale battery storage system, with a focus on lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries.

This paper addresses the safety needs and regulatory requirements for the proper storage of lithium-ion batteries. Unlike aqueous chemistry (such as lead-acid and Ni-Cd) batteries, Li-ion batteries are capable of going into thermal runaway even in a stored condition [7]. This is the reason you can’t carry even excess small Li-ion batteries on commercial airliners (except in a limited amount in carry-on bags – and never in checked luggage) [3]. In addition, worldwide, there have been several very large warehouse fires caused by stored Li-ion batteries. While there were already international air transport regulations for Li-ion batteries due to past incidents, as well as Li-ion manufacturer guidelines and regulations for over the road or ship transport (both of which continue to evolve); until recently there has been little good guidance around the storage (in warehouses and containers) of Li-ion batteries for stationary applications. This presentation will cover new rules in the 2023 edition of NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) 855 [13], and the science behind them, as well as make suggestions that go above and beyond the rules for safe storage of these highly useful Li-ion batteries that become a larger part of our lives every day. It will point out that they can be safely stored, but proper procedures need to be followed for that “storage” to be safe enough.

Dominion Energy has developed a means to detect and alert on Battery Open Condition in our Substations. Battery Open Condition means that no battery system, neither primary nor back-up, is connected to the DC bus at the substation. Dominion has relied on float current readings measured at the battery and supplied by the battery monitor to detect Battery Open Condition (BOC). However, we became aware of a vulnerability where this method would be unreliable. If BOC occurs and goes undetected, then a catastrophic event could occur.

In addition to improving reliability, Dominion will also be able to demonstrate compliance with the 2 standards that pertain to the DC system, NERC PRC-005-6 and NERC TPL-001-5.1, both of which require monitoring for open battery condition. Other reliability improvements implemented alongside the monitoring of BOC include:

• determining normal load, which will allow us to run a daily automated check to ensure the charger(s) are sized correctly to fully recharge a discharged battery within 8 hours
• enabling redundant battery High/Low voltage operating alarm to our system operator
• monitoring AC Ripple Voltage, which is used to help determine the health of the battery charger and the AC noise on the DC system
Dominion hopes that through sharing our experiences with the above implementation, we can help others achieve similar success.
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In recent years, battery manufacturers have advertised several new VRLA products as being heat tolerant or high temperature resistant.

In 2016, a major cellular telephone company initiated a trial of several high-temperature VRLA products at cell sites around Phoenix, Arizona. The battery cabinets at these sites were not temperature-controlled and had internal cabinet temperatures ranging from lows in the 40°F’s to highs over 120°F. The goal of this trial was to evaluate the annual performance degradation of the different products through capacity testing.

The battery products were baseline tested in a laboratory at 77°F to determine initial capacities and then installed in battery cabinets at the cell sites. Two 48V strings for each product were tested: temperature compensation was enabled on one string and disabled on the other. Monitoring systems were installed to continuously record float voltage, float current, string temperature, and ambient temperature at the sites.

“Control” strings for each product were also installed in a temperature-controlled laboratory and maintained on float charge at approximately 77°F.

Each year an IEEE 1188 capacity test was performed on every string. The capacity tests were performed at the manufacturer-specified three-hour constant current rate to 1.75vpc.

This paper presents findings from the high-temperature VRLA product trial, including annual capacity test results beginning in 2016.

National Building and Fire Codes and many Local Regulations require that energy storage systems (ESS) including standby battery systems, be Listed to UL Standards or similar International Standards by an approved testing laboratory. UL 1973, UL Standard for Safety Batteries for Use in Stationary and Motive Auxiliary Power Applications and UL 9540 Energy Storage Systems and Equipment, are widely adopted by the Codes such as NFPA 855, NFPA 1, and the International Fire Code (IFC) and apply to most battery installations. Recent Battcon presentations outlined the UL standards and building and fire code criteria and explained where specific UL Listings are required in the codes. While the UL Standards are comprehensive and effectively address safety for end-users, they do not always address abuse conditions that may apply to certain industry specific installation environments. The telecommunication industry battery requirements GR-4228 (VRLA), GR-3150 (lithium), GR- 3020 (Ni-Cd), GR-3168 (NiMH), GR-3176 (Sodium Metal Chloride), and GR-3181 (Nickel Zinc) provide a more diverse set of test criteria simulating environments and exposures that batteries may encounter in outside plant and indoor environments. This paper highlights benefits of the telecom industry requirements for abuse that should be considered when selecting and qualifying ESS. The following conditions where differences between UL Standards and Telcordia Generic Requirements occur include physical drops, water immersion, short-circuit, simulated brush fire, crush, salt fog, and mixed flowing gas. This paper will review common disaster situations we encountered and how these requirements and tests simulate these situations and ensure safety. Additional assessments provided through accelerated aging and life testing specified in GRs provide the user with valuable performance and reliability information not gleaned through UL listing. IEEE standards and guidelines also acknowledge certain abuse conditions or combination of conditions that may require consideration for safe ESS deployment.

Battery room safety requirements are a combination of Federal, State, and Local requirements. These model codes are subject to change every 3 years and standards are updated as the market dictates based on technology, selection, and application. Changes in Federal, State, and Local requirements are essential to note because local authorities, insurance companies, and other entities specify safety requirements for a site and will often require a risk mitigation program to address any safety risk presented in a battery application. As these standards and requirements cross organizations and jurisdictions, this paper guides end users in understanding the updated requirements, where to find information, best practice standards, and adopted codes to create your risk mitigation plan.

NFPA 855 has become recognized as the bellwether North American standard for qualifying a stationary energy storage system. However, ensuring its timely acceptance and implementation face certain noteworthy challenges. This paper will highlight the history of its inception, the important changes that occurred with the updated 2023 edition and explain the hurdles that exist to ensuring its wholesale adoption and enactment. These include competing codes/standards, regulatory fences, and a fluid ascendancy of technologies.

This paper is going to discuss the unusual incident of when a VLA (vented lead acid) battery cell physically self-destructs during normal operating conditions, with what appears to be no outside influence. Some might call this a cell explosion and some might call it a cell rupture. To the untrained observer the results may look the same, but they are not. The resultant “looks” of the cell are subtle but distinctly different, and easily identifiable. This paper is going to show you how to correctly identify what occurred so that you can take the proper corrective actions in order to prevent a recurrence of the incident.

In order to provide something that will enable you to visualize what we are going to explain, we will use a three-year-old eight-hundred Ah, sixty cell string, in an EP rack, that has a spill containment system, and a battery monitor as our battery, and will list observations of what you would observe in one of these events. We then include multiple pictures that clearly show the differences between an explosion and a rupture so that you can see how easy it is to recognize the differences.

Float current is the only individual measurement that can provide you with a wealth of information regarding the condition of your battery string at that moment in time. It by itself can inform you of whether you have a structurally intact battery circuit or do not. Float voltage, or most charger meter readings will not tell you this. It also can inform you if you are in a discharge or recharge condition, plus it can provide you with advance warning of internal conditions that can lead to string failure. It, when coupled with ambient temperature and cell temperature, can alert you of an impending thermal runaway issue, with adequate time to take preventative measures.

Float current has been known about and generally understood for decades, but what was not so well understood was just how much it could tell us, and just how important it is for that reading to be accurate and repeatable. The first time that any IEEE standard or any battery manufacturer’s maintenance manuals, mentioned/acknowledged that float current was important to be understood, and that it can provide valuable information to a knowledgeable user was not documented unit the IEEE Std. 1188™-2005¹ the “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Valve-Regulated Lead- Acid (VRLA) Batteries for Stationary Applications” added monthly float current readings to its recommended maintenance practice.

This paper is going to explain how to learn/determine what the float current should be for any battery model you have, how to and how not to take float current readings, and explain differences between manually taken readings and those from a permanently mounted device. In addition, we will show how easy it is to use float current as a guiding light, and we will explain why erroneous readings are misleading and can be dangerous.

If this reading is not clearly evident in every battery inspection you perform or have performed for you, then you are missing out on a very important tool that will benefit you in numerous ways, both in this moment in time, and as well as going forward to observe degradation in your battery.

This title may seem like a strange question, but it is one that is becoming more relevant as companies push to automate routine maintenance and the analysis of the collected data. Maintenance has always been about applying numeric values to operating parameters of the component being maintained. With that data, the component can be monitored by establishing limits, within which it is considered to be operating correctly. The problem is that these limits tend to be set at the edges of the operating regime to minimize false alarms and, as a result, that component may fail and compromise the system of which it is part, before the problem is identified. As many organizations are moving to the use of artificial intelligence to analyze the collected data, is the use of rigid numerical limits still the best way to assess the condition of an operational component? To examine this in more detail, let’s look at the batteries of a standby power system as they offer one of the biggest maintenance challenges, as they are only called into service when the power fails, and a single-cell failure in a two hundred and forty cell UPS battery can cause the UPS to shut down.

The purpose of this paper is to provide insight into the arc point energy and incident energy at a distance from the arc point that is present when an arc flash fault occurs inside of a cabinet containing a string of forty 12-volt VRLA batteries.

It is known that a DC arc flash is different than an AC arc flash due to the self- extinguishing of the arc that occurs when an AC voltage and current pass through the zero crossing. Even though the arc will be extinguished, it will self-ignite due to the heat generated by the plasma. This self-extinguish and re-ignition results in less arc energy and incident energy. The DC arc does not self-extinguish in the same way and will continue if the source voltage and available current is sufficient to sustain the arc.

Experiments were conducted to characterize the arc energy and incident energy present when a DC arc flash was created. These experiments used a continuous source of DC power to make measurements of incident energy and effects of widening of the arc gap.

Further testing characterized how a limited power source i.e., a battery string, is used to sustain the arc flash. The fact that the arc energy and incident energy are functions of available power and time, it is necessary to determine how long an arc can be sustained by a continuously diminishing power source. The results of an attempt to eliminate several of the factors that determine the arc duration by using Tungsten for the arc electrodes have been included.

This paper provides the results of experimentation with a fixed power source and the results of testing using batteries as the source. The amount of incident energy from both sources is compared showing the dependence of other variables effect on the magnitude and duration of arc flashes created. Included are the test set up, equipment required and test results from the experiments.

Technologies are rapidly evolving for Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), requiring new or revised design and worker safety standards. This presentation/paper will provide an overview of evolving design standards (UL, IEC, and IEEE) for the design of BESS components, and the recent and upcoming revisions for worker safety standards and safe work practices covering the thermal, shock, and arc flash hazards (NFPA and IEEE). Details of evolving worker safety standards for DC arc flash hazards will be provided, included new models for the modeling of dynamic arc behavior. The nonlinear models for various battery chemistries will be discussed.

Design guidance for batteries in the national electrical code [11] can be substantially improved. Article 480, storage batteries was developed around the work practices in NFPA 70E, which does not currently contain requirements for battery sectionalization procedures. This has led to some rules that don’t make sense for batteries and a lack of many of the best practices that have been developed for the design and construction of safer battery systems. The principles of the control of hazardous energy, including lockout tagout, can and need to be adapted to the design of batteries. A safer battery design can enable workers to establish a lower-risk work condition by sectionalizing the battery into lower voltage and/or lower energy segments. This paper explores how battery design changes can impact worker safety. The paper also covers how common engineering controls, like breakers and terminal covers, affect the battery risk assessment required by NFPA 70E. Lastly, the paper presents a list of changes proposed to the national electrical code that clarify a minimum set of requirements for storage batteries that would reduce risk and protect workers.